Comparative Federalism

"Dr. D.D. Basu is not known in legal realms by his name alone but it is because of his maturity of understanding, excellence of elucidation and simplicity of expression which ranks him at the top amongst Indian Authors known, read and acclaimed throughout India and abroad. Amongst many of his outstanding works "Comparative Constitutional Law and Comparative Federalism" have always been recognized as unparallel and incomparable works with any other book on the subject, much because of the in-depth study of special features and incidents of a Federal Constitution, from the standpoint of comparative law in addition to the exhaustive and analytical study of the theme and thought of Comparative Federalism. The eloquences of the earlier edition was superb much because of excerpts from Constitutions of almost all the developed and developing countries with cross references of decisions on the intricacies of Comparative Constitutional Law and Comparative Federalism as interpreted by numerous Courts at national and international levels.""After discussing the broad features of a written Constitution in the first volume of this series on Comparative Constitutional Law, we now take up the special features and incidents of a Federal Constitution, from the standpoint of comparative law. Obviously, the broad issues involved in the federal system have already been outlined in the Author's book on Comparative Constitutional Law by way of introduction to a written Constitution which is federal in nature. In the present one the author has dealt with the general features of federalism.""Political Science classified Constitutions as unitary and federal, from the organisational standpoint, i.e., from the standpoint of distribution of governmental powers, vertically, in a system of 'dual government'. The object of this book, as a part of a Series on Comparative Constitutional Law, is to deal with that distribution of powers from the legal standpoint, that is, the justiciable issues which may be settled by the Courts through legal disputes. The norms of an ideal federal distribution, again, appertain to Political Science and Philosophy but are outside the province of this work. It is primarily concerned with the judicial interpretation of the provisions of a federal Constitution, on a comparative level.""Of course, so far as the treatment of Indian Constitutional law is concerned, there are several other works of this Author on the subject. But the special feature of the present one is that it gets at the root of decisions, irrespective of their authority, and gives the reader an opportunity of assessing the weight of those decisions in the light of the juristic opinion of the world on the issue involved. In view of the encyclopaedic nature of this book it would not be possible to reproduce the relevant texts of the Constitutions dealt with herein. So far as foreign Constitutions are concerned, it would be advisable for the reader to keep on his table a copy of the Author's "Select Constitutions of the World" so that the reader's information might be precise and correct.""The average lawyer in India, of course, is hardly interested in anything above digests such as the Author's Shorter Constitution of India, which integrates all decisions up-to-date but the top-ranking lawyer knows that he can meet unforeseen problems only with the indubitable principles which stand over unfurrowed fields. To discover such principles and those of them as are relevant for his purposes for the time being, the present work of research would be indispensable. With all available resources at our end, expertise acquired and experience earned in the field, we have tried our level best to match more than the expectations of our distinguished readers and research scholars who are always in the quest of the latest."

D.D. BASU
COMPARATIVE FEDERALISM
SECOND EDITION 2007
CONTENTS
PART I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTORY
1. Scope of this Volume 1
2. Constitutions: Unitary and Federal 1
CHAPTER 2
ORIGIN OF FEDERALISM 1. Origin of Federalism 3
? Need for Federalism 3
? Federation 4
? Regional division of powers 4
? State and local governments 4
? Development of the federal concept 5 (i) United States 1787 Constitution 5 (ii) Variations 5 (ii) Essentials of American Federalism the same 5
2. Federalism 5
3. A Unitary State, Confederation and a Federal State: Distinction between 7
? Unitary and federal 7
? Unitary Constitutions 8
(i) U.K. 8
(ii) France 8
? Confederation 9
? Pre-Constitution America. 9
? Federation 10
(i) Distinguished from a Unitory State 10
(ii) Distinguished from a Confederation. 10
(a) Authority 10
(b) Power 10
(c) Both have legislatures, Executive and Judici-ary 10
(d) Creation of a state 10
(e) Authority from constitution 11
(f) Constitution 11
(g) S.C. or High Court to determine disputes 11
(h) Distribution of powers, change in 11
4. Nomenclature 11
? U.S.A. 11
? Australia and Canada 12
? Switzerland 12
? U.S.S.R. 12
? Nomenclature of the National Government. 12
? Nomenclature of the Units 13
? Nomenclature not a sure guide to federal character of a Constitution 13
5. The legal test of federalism 13
6. The legal features of a federal constitution 14
(a) A written constitutions: A dual government 14
(b) A dual Government 14
(c) Distribution of powers 14
(d) No unilateral change 14
(e) Interpretation by Judiciary 14
7. Can Indian Constitution be characterised as Federal? 14
CHAPTER 3
NATURE OF FEDERALISM
1. What is a Federal Constitution? 17
2. Transformation of Federalism 17
? U.S.A. 18
? Switzerland 18
? Australia 19
? Canada 19
3. The essential legal feature common to various types of Federal Constitutions 20
? Canada 21
? Australia 21
? India 21
4. Typical features of a federal polity 23
(i) Union of autonomous units 23
(ii) Dual Government. 23
(iii) Direct authority over the people of both Governments. 23
(iv) A written Constitution 24
(v) A Rigid Constitution. 24
(vi) Supremacy of the Constitution 24
(a) Where there are two Constitutions. 24
? U.S.A. 25
? Australia 26
? Switzerland 26
(vii) Authority of Courts 26
? U.S.A. 27
? Australia 27
? Canada 28
? West Germany 29
? Malaysia 30
? Nigeria 31
Different criteria of a federation in Political Science 32
5. Mode of formation 32
(i) The Federal sentiment. 32
? U.S.A. 33
? Canada 33
? West Germany 34
(ii) Participation of States in amending the Constitution 35
? U.S.A. 35
? Switzerland 35
? Australia 36
? Canada. 36
? West Germany. 37
? Malaysia. 38
? Nigeria. 38
(iii) Maintenance of State rights 39
Provisions for maintenance of ‘State rights’ 39
? Australia. 39
? Canada. 39
Protection against extinction. 40
? U.S.A. 40
? Australia. 40
? Switzerland 41
? West Germany. 41
? Malaysia. 42
? Nigeria. 42
Provisions for Federal control over States to ensure national unit. 42
(a) Control over State Constitutions. 43
? Switzerland. 43
? U.S.A. 43
? Australia. 43
? West Germany. 43
? Malaysia. 44
? Nigeria. 44
(b) Control over agreements and treaties. 44
? U.S.A. 44
? Australia. 45
? Switzerland. 45
? West Germany. 45
? Malaysia. 45
? Nigeria. 46
(c) The Supremacy Clause. 46
? U.S.A. 46
? Switzerland. 46
? Australia. 47
? Canada. 47
? West Germany. 48
? Malaysia. 48
(d) Federal control over State Legislation. 49
? U.S.A., Australia. 49
? West Germany. 49
? Switzerland. 50
? Malaysia 50
? Nigeria 50
? Canada. 50
(e) Disallowance of Provincial legislation. 50
(f) Reservation of Provincial legislation. 51
(g) Federal control over State Executive. 51
(h) Appointment of the State Governor 51
? U.S.A. 51
? Australia. 51
? Switzerland. 51
? West Germany 52
? Malaysia. 52
? Nigeria 52
? Canada. 52
(i) Federal control over State administrative functions. 53
? U.S.A. 53
Conditional grants. 54
? Australia. 56
? Canada 57
? Switzerland. 58
? West Germany. 58
? Malaysia. 59
? Nigeria. 60
(iv) Position of the States in the Federation. 60
(a) Equality of representation in Federal Upper Chamber. 60
? Australia. 60
? Switzerland. 61
? Malaysia 61
? Nigeria 61
? Canada 61
? West Germany 61
(b) Position of admitted States. 62
? U.S.A. 62
? Canada 62
? Australia 62
(v) Legal personality of the Union and the States. 62
(vi) Status of the Upper Chamber in a Federation. 63
? U.S.A. 63
? Switzerland. 63
? Australia. 63
? Canada. 64
? West Germany. 64
? Malaysia. 64
? Nigeria. 64
(vii) Location of residuary powers. 64
? U.S.A. 64
? Australia. 65
? Switzerland. 65
? West Germany. 65
? Malaysia. 65
(viii) Dual Judiciary. 66
? U.S.A . 66
? Switzerland. 66
? West Germany. 66
? Nigeria. 67
? Canada. 67
? Malaysia. 67
(ix) Provision for settlement of disputes. 68
? U.S.A. 68
? Switzerland. 68
? Australia. 68
? Canada. 69
? West Germany. 69
? Malaysia. 69
? Nigeria. 69
(x) Dual citizenship. 69
(xi) Sovereignty in a Federation.. 70
? Popular sovereignty. 70
? Legal sovereignty. 70
? Amending power 70
? The Theory of Divided Sovereignty. 72
? U.S.A. 72
? Switzerland. 73
? Australia. 74
? Canada. 74
? West Germany. 75
? Malaysia. 75
? Nigeria. 75
? Dicean concept of sovereign Legislature. 76
? India. 77
? State of West Bengal v. Union of India: a critique. 78
(xii) Federation, whether a compact. 81
? U.S.A. 81
? 10th Amendment. 82
? Supremacy Clause. 82
? Australia. 83
? Canada. 85
? India 86
(xiii) Federation as envisaged by the Government of India Act, 1935. 86
Not the result of a compact. 87
(xiv) Have the component Units any right to secede? 87
? U.S.S.R. 88
? U.S.A. 88
? Australia. 89
? Canada. 90
? Switzerland. 90
? West Germany. 90
? Malaysia. 91
? Nigeria. 91
? U.S.S.R. 91
? India 92
? Demand for Khalistan. 92
? Anandpur Sahib Resolution. 93
? Significance of the word ‘Nation’. 94
(a) The first thing 95
(b) Federal Proposals of Anandpur Restitution 96
(c) Reduction of Union Jurisdiction. 96
(d) Special status for Punjab cannot be claimed on the analogy of Kashmir. 96
(e) Peculiarities of the political history of Kashmir. 97
(f) Religious foundation of Sikh separatism, not tenable. 99
(g) Political History of Punjab 102
(h) Non-tenability of other arguments. 103
(i) The Punjab Accord. 106
(xv) Supremacy of the Constitution. 109
? Australia. 110
? Canada 110
? West Germany. 111
? India. 112
CHAPTER 4
INDIAN FEDERATION IN PARTICULAR
1. Whether the Indian Constitution can be classed as ‘federal’ 116
(a) Ambedkar’s view. 116
(i) Prior to June, 1947. 116
(ii) After June, 1947 116
? Outlook changed by the Partition of India. 116
(b) Traditional and modern notions on federalism. 117
2. A comparative study of Federalism in India and other leading countries. 119
(a) Peculiar features of Indian federalism. 119
(i) The mode of formation 119
? Australia, Canada 119
? India. 120
(b) Federation as envisaged by the Government of India Act, 1935. 120
? Under the Constitution: 121
? Not the result of a compact 121
(c) Position of States in the federation. 122
? U.S.A. 122
? Australia. 122
? India. 122
(i) A State may be eliminated or reformed without its consent. 122
? U.S.A. 123
? Australia, Canada. 123
? India. 123
? No federal equality of States. 123
? India. 124
? No State, excepting Kashmir, can draw its own Constitution. 124
(d) Nature of Polity 124
? U.S.A. 124
? India. 124
? No dual citizenship or administration. 124
? Art. 312. 125
? Arts. 258-258A. 125
? Arts. 256-257 125
? Arts. 356, 365. 125
? U.S.A. 126
? India. 126
(e) Strong Central bias 126
? Art. 248. 127
? India and Canada compared. 127
(i) In the National Interest 127
? Power in certain contingencies, Art. 249. 127
(ii) Compared with Canada. 128
? Art. 252. 129
? U.S.A. 129
? Canada. 129
? Australia. 129
(iii) Government of India Act, 1935 130
(iv) Constitution of India: Art. 252 131
(v) Deviation from normal federal ideas 132
? Arts. 250, 352-353. 132
? Arts. 256-257. 132
? Art. 360. 132
? Arts. 356, 365. 133
? Art. 201. 133
3. Judicial assessment of Indian Federalism. 133
(i) Until the West Bengal decision in 1963 134
(ii) Other Decisions 135
? State of W.B. v. Union of India: a critique. 135
? State of Karnataka v. Union of India: a critique. 136
(iii) A critique of the Indian federal system. 137
4. The working of federalism in India. 139
? Cry for more State powers, since 1967. 141
5. Future of federalism in India. 142
6. The legal aspects of Federalism. 143
7. Legal features of a federal Constitution. 143
8. Conclusion. 144
CHAPTER 5
TERRITORY OF A FEDERATION
1. Territory over which the federal union extends 147
Division of Territory. 147
2. States which formed the Union. 148
• U.S.A. 148
• Canada. 148
• Australia. 148
• Switzerland. 149
• West Germany. 149
• India. 149
3. The States. 149
Membership of the Union and ‘territory of India’. 149
Difference in status between the States and the Union Territories 150
Admission of new States. 151
• U.S.A. 151
• Australia. 152
• Canada. 152
• West Germany. 153
• Switzerland. 153
• India. 153
• Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura. 154
• Meghalaya. 154
• Nagaland. 155
• Sikkim 155
35th Amendment. 156
36th Amendment. 156
4. Modes of Adjustment of Federal Boundaries or Reorganisation of Territory. 157
Reorganisation of territory. 157
• U.S.A. 158
• Australia. 159
• Canada. 160
• West Germany. 160
• India. 161
A State may be eliminated or reformed without its consent. 161
Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States. 161
Modes of reorganisation. 162
Secession. 164
Acquisition of Territory. 164
Modes of acquisition. 164
• Modes of 165
• U.S.A. 165
• Australia. 165
• India 166
• Trust territory 166
• When is a territory acquired for the purpose of Art. 7(3)(c) 166
• Cession 166
• Mastham Sahib v. Chief Commissioner 167
Conquest 167
5. Government of Acquired Territory. 168
• U.S.A. 168
• Australia. 169
• India. 169
CHAPTER 6
CITIZENSHIP
1. Peculiarities of citizenship in a Federation 171
(a) Dual Citizenship. 172
• U.S.A. 172
• Switzerland. 172
• Australia. 173
• West Germany. 173
• Malaysia. 173
(b) Single citizenship. 173
• Canada. 173
• Nigeria. 174
• India. 174
(c) Jammu and Kashmir. 175
Special privileges of ‘permanent residents’. 176
Citizenship. 177
Citizenship and Nationality. 177
Nationality and Domicile. 178
• Domicile of origin. 179
• Domicile of choice. 179
• Requirements 179
Citizenship and Domicile. 179
Joshi v. State of M.P.: A critique. 180
2. Acquisition of Federal Citizenship. 184
• U.S.A. 184
• Australia. 185
• Canada. 185
• West Germany. 186
• Malaysia. 186
• Nigeria. 186
• India: 186
(a) Persons who became citizens of India on 26-1-1950. 187
(b) Modes of acquisition of Indian citizenship after 26-1-1950. 188
• Citizenship Act, 1955. 188
(i) Birth 188
(ii) Decent 189
(iii) Registration 190
(iv) Naturalisation 192
(v) Incorporation of Territory 193
• of persons domiciled in—Dadra, Nagar Haveli, 194
• Goa, Daman & Diu 194
(vi) Certificate in case of doubt 194
(c) Loss of citizenship. 195
• U.S.A. 195
(i) Renunciation 196
• India. 196
(ii) Termination 196
• India. 196
3. Determination of acquisition of foreign citizenship. 197
• India. 197
(i) Deprivation 199
• U.S.A. 199
• India 199
4. Incidents of citizenship. 201
(a) Under double Citizenship 201
(i) Political rights 201
• U.S.A. 201
(ii) Civil Rights 201
(b) Under single Citizenship 202
• India 202
(i) Political rights 202
(ii) Civil Rights 202
CHAPTER 7
DISTRIBUTION OF LEGISLATIVE POWERS
1. Need for a Distribution of Powers in a Federal System. 206
2. Different patterns of distribution. 206
• U.S.A. 206
• Art. I, s. 8. 207
• 10th Amendment. 207
• Australia. 209
• s. 109. 209
• s. 51. 210
• s. 107. 210
• Canada. 211
• s. 92 211
• s. 91 211
• Switzerland. 214
• West Germany. 214
• Malaysia. 215
• Nigeria. 215
• India 216
(i) Government of India Act, 1935. 216
(ii) Constitution. 216
(iii) Threefold division of legislative powers. 217
3. Conflicts between Exclusive Jurisdictions. 220
• India. 220
(i) Doctrine of ‘pith and substance’. 221
(ii) Doctrine of ancillary powers. 223
(iii) Doctrine of colourable legislation. 225
(iv) Laws of taxation. 226
(v) Reading down. 227
(vi) The non-obstante clauses in Art. 246. 228
(vii) Conclusion. 228
(viii) Doctrine of Occupied Field. 229
4. Conflicts in the Concurrent Field. 229
(i) Need for a Concurrent List. 229
(ii) Problems arising in the Concurrent sphere. 231
(iii) Ultra vires and Repugnancy. 232
(iv) ‘Inconsistency’ and ‘Repugnancy’. 233
(v) Sources of Concurrent jurisdiction. 233
(vi) Concurrent jurisdiction by judicial interpretation. 233
• U.S.A. 233
• Doctrine of ‘occupied field’. 235
(i) Commerce power 235
(ii) Labour Relations 236
(iii) Postal Power 237
• Australia. 237
• Canada. 237
• Doctrine of Aspect of legislation. 237
• Australia. 239
• India: Sources of concurrent powers under the Constitution. 239
• Art. 246(2) 239
• Arts. 249, 250. 239
• Art. 251. 239
5. Supremacy or Paramountcy of Federal Law and Repugnancy. 240
• U.S.A. 240
• Australia. 243
• West Germany. 244
• The doctrine of ‘occupied field’. 244
• India. 244
6. Some General Rules relating to Repugnancy. 247
7. Tests of Inconsistency. 248
8. Inconsistency and Implied Repeal. 251
(i) Implied repeal. 251
(ii) General Principles. 251
• India. 252
(iii) Effect of Repugnancy. 252
(iv) The Doctrine of Severability. 253
• U.S.A. 254
• Australia, • Canada. 254
• India. 255
(v) Application of the doctrine of Severability to taxing laws. 256
(vi) The ‘non-obstante’ Clause in Art. 246. 257
(a) Concurrent Sphere. 261
• Art. 254. 261
(b) Exclusive Sphere of State Legislature 264
(c) The Residual Sphere 265
• Need for Residuary power. 265
• Source of Residuary power and its interpretation. 265
• U.S.A. 265
• Doctrine of ‘implied powers’. 266
• Doctrine of ‘occupied field’. 267
• The Supernacy Clause 267
• Australia. 269
• Canada. 270
• India. 271
• Dhillon’s case: a critique. 273
CHAPTER 8
IMPACT OF EXTERNAL EMERGENCY UPON
FEDERAL POWERS
1. External Emergency. 275
A. Judicial expansion of federal power during external emergency. 276
• U.S.A. : Art. II, s. 2(1). 276
B. Legislative Power 277
Art. I, s. 8(11). 277
• Australia, s. 51(vi). 279
(i) During actual warfare 280
(ii) After termination of war 280
(iii) During time of peace 281
• Canada, s. 91(7) 281
C. Express Emergency Provisions in the Constitution 283
• West Germany. 283
• Malaysia, Art. 150 284
• Nigeria. 285
• India : Arts. 325-360 285
(i) Proclamation of Emergency. 286
(ii) Revocation of a Proclamation. 287
(iii) Justiciability of the Proclamation. 288
(iv) Impact of the Proclamation on federal struc-ture. 289
• Arts. 250-251 289
• Art. 353 289
• Art. 256, 257, 354 291
(v) Safeguards introduced by Amendments. 292
CHAPTER 9
IMPACT OF INTERNAL EMERGENCY UPON
FEDERAL POWERS
1. Incidence of Emergency 295
2. U.S.A.: Art. IV, s. 4 295
3. Switzerland: Arts. 17, 31A, 16 297
4. West Germany: Art. 91 298
5. Malaysia: Arts. 73, 74, 79 299
6. Nigeria: S. 11(4) 300
7. India : Art. 355 300 Entry 2A, List I 301 Entries 1, 2 of List II 302
CHAPTER 10
IMPACT OF EMERGENCY OWING TO
BREAKDOWN OF CONSTITUTIONAL
MACHINERY IN A STATE
1. Article 356 303
2. U.S.A. 303
• Art. IV, s. 4, 1st part. 304
3. Switzerland 308
4. Australia 308
5. West Germany 309
6. Malaysia 310
7. Nigeria 310
8. India 311
• Art. 356 311
• Art. 357 312
• Art. 355. 312
9. Effects of use of Art. 356 313
10. Arts. 352 and 356 compared 314
11. The chain of provisions behind Art. 356 317
12. Frequent uses of Art. 356 not intended by makers of the Constitution. 318
13. Erosion of the federal principle. 319
14. Government of India Act, 1935. 319
15. Improper uses of the power. 322
16. Ordinary breakdown of law and order. 322
17. Politically motivated use. 324
18. Rajasthan v. Union of India: a critique. 327
19. Art. 365. 334
• Amendment of Art. 365 suggested. 334
20. Remedy suggested. 336
CHAPTER 11
IMPACT OF FINANCIAL EMERGENCY
1. Dislocation of Financial Arrangement. 339
(i) As a result of Proclamation of Emergency under Art. 352. 339
• Arts. 352/354. 339
(ii) As a result of Proclamation of Financial Emergency. 340
• Art. 360. 340 Provisions as to financial emergency. 340
2. The effects of a declaration of financial emergency 341
3. The object behind this extraordinary provision 342
PART II
UNION-STATE RELATIONS
CHAPTER 12
GENERAL SAFEGUARDS AND LIMITATIONS
UPON FEDERAL AND STATE POWERS
1. Need for mutual limitations 344
2.
(a) Reciprocal Obligations for mutual existence. 344
(1) Obligations of the Union. 345
(i) Duty of the Union to maintain the constitutional form of government in the States. 345
• U.S.A. 345
• Switzerland. 345
• Australia. 345
• West Germany. 345
• Malaysia. 346
• India (Art. 356). 346
(ii) Obligation of the Union to protect a State against invasion or external aggression. 346
• U.S.A.: Art. 1, s. 8(15) 346
• Switzerland:. Arts. 5, 15, 17 346
• Australia: sec. 119 346
• India: Art. 355, 352, 353, 354. 346
(iii) Duty of the Union to protect a State against domestic violence. 347
• U.S.A.: Art. IV(4) 347
• Switzerland: Arts. 5, 15, 16. 348
• Australia: sec. 119. 349
• West Germany: Arts. 35(2), 91 349
• Malaysia: Art. 149. 349
• Nigeria: sec. 11(4). 349
• India: Art. 355. 349
• Central Acts enabling deployment of Union Armed Forces in States. 350
(iv) Duty to protect the constitutional system in a State. 352
(v) Non-interference with territorial integrity of a State without its consent. 352
• U.S.A.: Art. IV, Sec. 3(1) 352
• Australia: ss. 123-124. 352
• West Germany: sec. 18 352
• India: Arts. 3, 4 352
(vi) Non-interference with representation of a State in federal Legislature. 353
• U.S.A.: Art. V 353
• Australia: sec. 7. 353
(vii) Non-discrimination between or against States. 353
(1) Taxation. 353
• U.S.A.: Art. I, s. 8(1) 353
• Australia: s. 51(ii), s. 92. 354
• India:. 354 (2) Trade or commerce. 354
• American Constitution: Art. 1, s. 9(6). 354
• Australia: ss. 51(iii), 88, 90, 92, 99, 100, 177 356
• Malaysia: Cl. (4), Art. 8 359
• India: Arts. 301, 302, 303, 305. 359
3. How far Australian decisions are relevant to the interpretation of Art. 301. 360
(i) Points of difference 360
(ii) Helpful where our Constitution is “none-too-clear” 361
(iii) Art. 301, as a limitation upon Parliament. 362
(iv) Extends to any law made by Parliament under any power. 362
(v) But the freedom is impaired only if it operates as a restriction on movement as distinguished from regulation. 363
(vi) Regulation distinguished from restriction. 364
(vii) Meaning of ‘trade, commerce and intercourse’ 365
4. Doctrine of res extra commercium. 367
• Sat Pal’s case (1979) 368
• Fatehchand’s case (1977) 368
• Kadir’s case (1976) 368
• Chamarbaugwala case (1957) 369
5. Exception to the Freedom: Art. 302. 370
• ‘Public interest’. 370
6. Whether ‘public interest’ is justiciable. 370
• The test of reasonableness if applicable. 371
7. Exception to exception : Art. 303. 374
• Ambit of Cl. (1). 374
8. Mutual Immunities of Instrumentalities. 377
• U.S.A. 377
• Australia: s. 114. 381
• Canada: s. 125. 383
• India:. 385
(i) Arts. 285, 289, 285(1). 386
(ii) Exception to the immunity of the Union. 387
(iii) Immunity of a State: Art. 289(1). 387
9. Taxation of business carried on by a Government. 389
• U.S.A. 389
• India: Art. 285, 289. 389
(i) Trading activities of a State Government: Art. 289(2)-(3) 389
(ii) Trading activities of the Union Government. 390
10. Obligations of States. 391
• Express limitations on the State power from federal standpoint. 391
• U.S.A. 391
• The ‘Supremacy Clause’. 394
• India: Union list : entries 10-14, List I. 395
11. Obligation of a State not to secede. 396
CHAPTER 13
TECHNIQUES OF UNION CONTROL
OVER STATES
1. Need for co-ordination, control and co-operation between the Union and the Units of a Federation. 398
2. Need for federal control over the States. 398
3. Control over State Constitution of Jammu & Kashmir. 398
4. Techniques of Union Control over States. 399
(i) In Emergency. 399
(ii) In normal times. 400
5. [A] Control through Executive Powers of the President. 400
(i) Union control through Governor. 400
(ii) Case for & against office of Governor. 400
(iii) Dual role of Governor. 401
(iv) Status of Governor vis-à-vis the Union Executive. 401
• U.S.A. 401
• Canada 401
• India. 403
[B] Constitutional Role of the Governor 403
(i) Governor’s role as Constitutional head. 404
• U.K. 404
• India. 404
• Art. 167. 404
• Proviso 1 to Art. 200. 405
• Art. 176. 406
• Art. 213. 407
• Art. 163(1). 408
[C] Discretionary Role of the Governor. 408
(i) The sphere of discretion. 410
• Art. 239(2): 6th Sch., Para. 9. 410
• Arts. 371-371F. 410
(ii) By implication. 410
• Art. 356. 411
• Art. 355. 411
• Art. 200. 412
• Art. 163(2). 412
(iii) Choice of Chief Minister. 413
• Art. 164(1). 413
• Art. 164(4). 413
• Conditional appointment. 414
• Defection. 415
• Art. 164(2). 415
(iv) Dismissal of the Council of Ministers or the Chief Minister. 417
• Mahabir v. P.C. Ghosh : a critique. 417
(v) Dissolution of the Legislative Assembly. 420
• U.K. 420
• India. 420
• Marginal cases. 421
6. Statutory functions of Governor. 424
Chancellor’s functions under University statute. 424
7. Statutory power to sanction prosecution of Chief Minister. 426
8. Mode of appointment. 428
9. Mode of removal. 430
10. Control of the Union over exercise of discretionary functions by Governor. 431
• State of Rajasthan v. Union of India, (1977). 432
11. The case for Instrument of Instructions. 433
12. Non-discretionary sphere. 433
13. Government of India Act, 1935. 434
14. Draft Constitution. 434
15. Whether conventions can be codified. 434
16. Adoption of Instrument of Instructions suggested. 435
[D] Control through legislative powers vested in the President. 437
17. Federal Control over State Legislation. 437
(a) Federal disallowance of State legislation. 437
• U.S.A. 437
• Australia 437
• Canada. 438
• India: Art. 200. 438
(b) Marginal or doubtful cases. 440
[E] Return of State Bill to State Legislature for reconsideration. 443
• Proviso to Art. 201. 443
[F] Previous sanction to State Bills. 444
• Art. 255. 444
• Art. 304(b). 444
18. Control over the State Administration. 444
(a) Directions to the State Government. 444
• West Germany. 445
• India. 445
(b) Sanction for enforcement of directions: Art. 365. 446
(c) Financial Control. 446
19. Grants-in-aid. 447
• U.S.A. 447
• Australia. 448
• India: Art 282 448
20. Loans 448
• India: Art. 293(2). 448
21. Legislative control in the concurrent sphere. 450
• Art. 254. 450
22. Union holding Commission of Inquiry over State affairs. 450
CHAPTER 14
AGENCIES OF CO-ORDINATION AND CO-OPERATION
1. Need for co-ordination and co-operation. 453
2. Agencies of Union-State co-ordination. 454
(a) Inter-State Council. 454
• U.S.A. 455
• Australia: S. 105A. 455
• Canada. 456
• India 456
(i) Constitutional Provisions: Art. 263. 456
(ii) Inter-State Council. 456
(b) Inter-State Commerce Commission. 460
• U.S.A.: Art. I, sec. 8(18) 460
• India: Art. 307. 461
Extra-constitutional agencies for setting All-India problems. 461
(c) Planning Commission. 461
• India 456
3. Co-operative Federalism. 465
• Co-ordinate federalism. 465
• Co-operative Federalism. 466
• U.S.A. 466
• Need for co-operative federalism. 470
• India: From Competitive to co-operative Federalism: 471
4. Agencies of Union and State Co-operation. 473
• U.S.A. 474
(i) Co-operation under Constitutional provisions. 474
• West Germany 474
• Australia 475
• India 475
(ii) Informal Co-operation. 475
• U.S.A. 476
• Canada. 476
• India. 476
• Zonal Councils. 476
• North-Eastern Council. 477
• River Boards 477
• Inter-State Transport Corporation. 478
(iii) Formal agreement. 478
• U.S.A. 478
• Canada 478
• Australia: s. 105A. 479
• West Germany. 479
• India. 479
(iv) Participation in a joint legislative Scheme or Plan: Co-operative legal programme. 480
• U.S.A. 480
• Australia. 480
• Canada 481
• India. 482
(v) Mutual delegation of functions. 482
• U.S.A. 482
• Canada. 483
• India: Arts: 258, Art. 258A 484
(vi) Interchange and sharing of personnel. 485
• U.S.A. 485
• India: All-India Services. 485
(vii) Enforcement of Union laws by the States. 486
• Switzerland. 486
• West Germany. 487
• India 488
(viii) Union grants-in-aid to the States. 488
• U.S.A. 489
• India: 490
• Financial Co-operation. 490
• New Scheme of Tax-sharing after 2000 490
• Arts. 268, 269, 270, 272, 275, 282. 491
• Provisos to Cl (1) and (IA) of Art. 275. 491
• Arts. 275 and 282 491
CHAPTER 15
SETTLEMENT OF UNION-STATE DISPUTES
1. A federal Constitution generates disputes. 495
• Settlement through the Courts. 495
(i) Regarding Division of legislative power. 496
(ii) Violation of some substantive limitation imposed by the Constitution. 496
• U.S.A. 497
• Australia. 497
• India. 497
• Art. 286. 497
• Arts. 301-304. 497
(iii) Forum. 498
• India. 498
(iv) Advisory Jurisdiction. 498
• India : Art. 143. 499
2. Extra-judicial agencies for settlement of federal disputes. 499
(i) Referendum. 499
• Switzerland (1874). 499
(ii) Inter-State Commerce Commission. 499
• Australia: Art. 101. 500
• India: Art. 307. 500
(iii) Inter-State Council. 500
PART III
RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES INTER SE
CHAPTER 16
INTER-STATE COMITY
1. Need for co-operation between States inter se. 501
2. Agencies for inter-State comity. 502
(i) Full Faith and Credit. 502
• U.S.A.: Art. IV 502
• Australia : s. 51(xxiv). 503
• India: Art. 261(1). 503
(ii) Service of Judicial Process. 505
• Australia: Art. 38(xxiv). 505
• India: List III. 505
(iii) Extradition or Inter-State Rendition of Fugitives 506
• U.S.A. 506
• Australia. 506
(iv) Execution of Judgments. 507
• U.S.A. 507
• Australia 507
• India 507
CHAPTER 17
FREEDOM OF TRADE AND COMMERCE
1. Need for inter-State freedom of Trade, Commerce and Inter-course in a Federal System. 509
(i) U.S.A.: Art. 1, s. 8(3) 509
(ii) Australia: s. 92. 510
(iii) Canada: s. 121. 512
(iv) India: Art. 301, Art. 304(b), Art. 304(a). 512
CHAPTER 18
INTER-STATE CO-OPERATION
1. Scope of the Chapter. 517
2.
(i) Agreements. 517
• U.S.A.: Art. 10(3). 518
• Switzerland, Art. 7 518
• India. 519
(ii) Uniform or reciprocal legislation 519
• U.S.A. 519
• Australia. 519
• India. 520
(iii) Constitutional Provisions. 520
• Inter-State Council: Art. 263. 520
• Inter-State Commerce Commission: Art. 307. 520
• Inter-State River Board and Tribunals: Art. 262(1). 521
(iv) Extra-constitutional Agencies for co-operation 521
(v) Extra-judicial settlement of disputes. 522
Subject-Index 523