Contents
Chapter 1
Basic Principles
Pages
1. Meaning of interpretation or construction 1
2. Intention of the Legislature 3
3. Statute must be read as a whole in its context 35
4. Statute to be construed to make it effective and workable 44
5. If meaning plain, effect must be given to it irrespective of consequences 50
6. Appraisal of the principle of plain meaning 54
Chapter 2
Guiding Rules
1. Language of the statute should be read as it is 64
(a) Avoiding addition or substitution of words 64
(b) Casus omissus 67
(c) Avoiding rejection of words 75
(d) Departure from the rule 78
(i) Addition of words when permissible 78
(ii) Rejection of words when permissible 82
(iii) Treating words or provisions as superfluous 83
2. The rule of literal construction 85
(a) Natural and grammatical meaning 85
(b) Explanation of the rule 94
(c) Exact meaning preferred to loose meaning 105
(d) Technical words in technical sense 106
(i) Special meaning in trade, business, etc. 106
(ii) Legal sense of words 114
3. Regard to subject and object 119
(a) General 119
(b) Rule in Heydon’s case; purposive construction: mischief rule 124
4. Regard to consequences 131
(a) Hardship, inconvenience, injustice, absurdity and anomaly to be avoided 132
(b) Inconsistency and repugnancy to be avoided; harmonious construction 144
(c) When Reconciliation not possible 151
(d) Avoiding uncertainty and friction in the system which the statute purports to regulate 152
Chapter 3
Internal Aids to Construction
1. Long title 155
2. Preamble 158
3. Preamble of the Constitution 165
4. Headings 167
5. Marginal notes 171
6. Punctuation 172
7. Illustrations 175
8. Definition sections or interpretation clauses 178
(a) Restrictive and extensive definitions 179
(b) Ambiguous definitions 185
(c) Definitions are subject to a contrary context 191
9. Proviso 195
(a) Its real nature 195
(b) Not construed as excluding or adding something by implication 196
(c) Construed in relation to the section or sections to which it is appended 199
(d) Use as guide to construction of enactment 201
(e) At times added to allay fears 205
(f) At times a fresh enactment 206
(f1) Summary of purposes of a proviso 208
(g) Distinction between proviso, exception and saving clause 209
(h) Broad general rule of construction 210
10. Explanation 212
11. Schedules 215
12. Transitional provision 217
Chapter 4
External Aids to Construction
1. Parliamentary History 219
(a) English practice 219
(i) Traditional view 219
(ii) Criticism of the traditional view 222
(iii) Modern trend 224
(b) American practice 229
(c) Indian view 231
2. Historical facts and Surrounding Circumstances 247
3. Later Social, Political and Economic Developments and Scientific Inventions 249
(a) General 249
(b) Constitution Acts 258
4. Reference to other Statutes 298
(a) Statutes in pari materia 298
(b) Assistance of earlier statutes 302
(c) Assistance of later statutes 314
(d) Incorporation of earlier Act into later; Reference of earlier Act into later 318
(e) Codifying and consolidating statutes 335
(i) Codifying statutes 335
(ii) Consolidating statutes 337
5. Effect of usage and Practice; Contemporanea Expositio 341
6. Dictionaries 349
7. Use of Foreign Decisions 351
Chapter 5
Subsidiary Rules
1. Same word same meaning 356
2. Use of different words 358
3. Rule of last antecedent 359
4. Non-obstante clause 364
5. Legal fiction 377
6. Mandatory and directory provisions 389
(a) General 389
(b) When consequences provided by statute 399
(c) Use of negative words 404
(d) Affirmative words may imply a negative 405
(e) Use of ‘shall’ or ‘shall and may’; ‘must’ and ‘should’ 406
(f) Considerations of general inconvenience in statutes imposing public duty; provisions as to time; provisions for consultation 410
(g) Formalities prescribed for making contracts or transfers 418
(h) Statutes conferring power; Express and Implied conditions; Judicial Review 419
(i) General 419
(ii) Express conditions; Implied prohibition, Incidental
powers 420
(iii) Implied conditions and judicial review 435
(a) Administrative and quasi-judicial orders 435
(b) Subordinate legislation 462
(c) Ordinances and orders under the Constitution 462
(i) Manner of expression of exercise of power 464
(j) Statute conferring private rights and benefits 466
(k) Enabling words, e.g., ‘may’, ‘it shall be lawful’, ‘shall have power’. Power coupled with duty 467
(l) Words conveying discretion; as he deems fit; think necessary; consider necessary 473
(m) ‘Have regard to’ 475
7. Conjunctive and disjunctive words ‘or’ and ‘and’ 477
8. Construction of general words 480
(a) General 480
(a1) Principle of Legality 486
(a2) Principle of Legality and the Human Rights Act (U.K.) 488
(a3) Terrorism and Human Rights in U.K. 492
(a4) Terrorism and Human Rights in U.S.A.. 497
(b) Noscitur A Sociis 499
(c) Rule of ejusdem generis 504
(d) Words of Rank 515
(e) Reddendo Singula Singulis 515
Chapter 6
Operation of Statutes
1. Commencement 520
2. Retrospective operation 523
(a) General principles 523
(i) Power to make retrospective laws 523
(ii) Statutes dealing with substantive rights 524
(iii) Statutes dealing with procedure 528
(iv) Recent statements of the rule against retrospectivity 530
(v) Language not always decisive 533
(b) Statutes regulating succession 534
(c) Statutes regulating transfers and contracts 536
(d) Statutes of limitation 540
(e) Fiscal statutes 542
(f) Penal statutes 545
(g) Statutes prescribing posterior disqualification on past conduct 551
(h) Statutes conferring prospective benefit on antecedent facts: Remedial statutes 553
(i) Declaratory statutes 559
(j) Statutes regulating appeals 562
(k) Statutes affecting finality of orders 568
(l) Pending proceedings 571
(i) Alteration of substantive rights 571
(ii) Alteration in matters of procedure 582
3. Operation controlled on considerations of constitutionality: Presumption against exceeding constitutional powers 583
(a) Legislative Powers 583
(b) Presumption of Constitutionality 591
(c) Rule of Construction 593
(d) Limitations of the Rule 602
(e) Severability 605
4. Operation controlled on considerations of territorial nexus: Presumption against exceeding territorial powers 606
(a) Principle of territorial nexus 606
(i) General 606
(ii) Legislation under the Government of India Act, 1935 610
(iii) Legislation under the Constitution of India 612
(b) Rule of construction 618
5. Other relevant considerations relating to operation 621
(a) Presumption that Legislation is territorial 621
(b) Operation as to foreigners: Regard to principles of International Law in that respect 622
(b1) Regard to International agreements or conventions and International Law 627
(b2) Acts passed to give effect to international treaties and conventions 633
(c) Operation as to crimes 649
(d) International Crimes 653
Chapter 7
Expiry and Repeal of Statutes
1. Perpetual and temporary statutes 659
2. Effect of expiry of temporary statutes 661
(a) Legal proceedings under expired statute 661
(b) Notifications, Orders, Rules, etc. made under temporary statute 667
(c) Expiry does not make the statute dead for all purposes 667
(d) Repeal by a temporary statute 669
3. Power to repeal is consistent with power to enact and is not controlled by previous legislation : repeal may be express or implied 671
4. Express repeal 675
5. Implied repeal 679
(a) General 679
(b) Prior particular law and later general law 683
(c) Prior general law and later particular law 686
(d) Affirmative enactments 691
(e) Laws defining offences and penalties 693
6. Consequences of repeal 695
(a) General 695
(b) Revival 699
(c) Saving of rights acquired 700
7. Subordinate legislation under repealed statute 720
8. Quasi repeal by desuetude 722
Chapter 8
Statutes Affecting the Crown
or the State
1. The Rule of Common Law 725
(a) General principles 725
(b) Extent of the rule 732
2. The Rule in India 740
Chapter 9
Statutes Affecting Jurisdiction
of Courts
1. General principles 747
(a) Exclusion must be explicitly expressed or clearly implied 747
(b) Three classes of cases 755
(c) Cases of breach of statutory duties 763
(d) Omission to exercise statutory power 770
2. The extent of exclusion 772
(a) Construction of exclusionary clauses 772
(b) Cases of nullity 786
(c) Rule of conclusive evidence 799
3. Exclusion of jurisdiction of superior courts 802
Chapter 10
Construction of Taxing Statutes and
Evasion of Statutes
1. Strict construction of taxing statutes 809
(a) Taxing statutes 809
(b) General principles of strict construction 815
(c) Illustrative cases 826
(d) Qualifications of the rule of strict construction 831
(e) American view 848
2. Evasion of statutes 848
Chapter 11
Remedial and Penal Statutes
1. Remedial and penal statutes-Distinction 865
2. Liberal construction of remedial statutes 870
(a) General principles 870
(b) Illustrative cases 885
3. Strict construction of penal statutes 893
(a) General principles 893
(b) Illustrative cases 913
4. Mens rea in statutory offences 926
(a) General principles 926
(b) Illustrative cases 934
5. Offences by legal persons, e.g., State and Companies 946
6. Vicarious responsibility in statutory offences 954
7. Mens rea under the Indian Penal Code 968
Chapter 12
Delegated Legislation
1. Forms of delegated legislation 970
2. Constitutional limits of legislative delegation 973
(a) General principles 973
(b) Distinction between conditional and delegated legislation 982
(i) Conditional Legislation 982
(ii) Delegated Legislation 987
3. Delegated legislation and judicial review 998
(a) Grounds of judicial review 998
(b) Compliance with Natural Justice when Necessary 1000
(c) Conformity with the Constitution 1003
(d) Conformity with the Enabling Act 1004
(i) General Principles of Conformity; Presumption of
Validity, Unreasonableness 1004
(ii) Different forms of enabling provisions and related issues of judicial review 1008
(e) Retrospectivity of Delegated Legislation 1019
(f) Taxation by Delegated Legislation 1022
(g) Provisions curtailing judicial review 1026
(i) ‘As if enacted in this Act’ formula 1026
(ii) ‘Conclusive evidence clause’ 1026
(iii) ‘Ganga’ clause 1029
4. Procedural requirements 1030
(a) Section 23, General Clauses Act, 1897; ‘Previous Publication’ 1030
(b) Publication after making; Date of publication 1031
(c) Publication after making as required by enabling Act 1036
(d) Requirement of laying 1039
(e) Requirement of consultation 1046
(f) Requirement of approval, sanction or permission 1047
5. Powers implied from general clauses Act, 1897 1047
(a) Section 21, General Clauses Act, 1897 1047
(b) Section 22, General Clauses Act, 1897 1050
6. Rules and the enabling Act as aid to each other’s construction 1051
7. Sub-delegation 1054
Appendix
The General Clauses Act, 1897
Preliminary
1. Short title 1061
2. [Repealed] 1062
General Definitions
3. Definitions 1062
4. Application of foregoing definitions to previous enactments 1087
4-A. Application of certain definitions to Indian Laws 1088
General Rules of Construction
5. Coming into operation of enactment 1088
5-A. [Repealed] 1089
6. Effect of repeal 1089
6-A. Repeal of Act making textual amendment in Act or Regulation 1089
7. Revival of repealed enactments 1090
8. Construction of references to repealed enactments 1090
9. Commencement and termination of time 1092
10. Computation of time 1096
11. Measurement of distances 1097
12. Duty to be taken pro rata in enactments 1098
13. Gender and number 1098
13-A. [Repealed] 1101
Powers and Functionaries
14. Powers conferred to be exercisable from time to time 1101
15. Power to appoint to include power to appoint ex officio 1104
16. Power to appoint to include power to suspend or dismiss 1104
17. Substitution of functionaries 1104
18. Successors 1105
19. Official chiefs and subordinates 1105
Provisions as to Orders, Rules, etc., made under Enactments
20. Construction of notifications etc., issued under enactments 1105
21. Power to issue, to include power to add to, amend, vary or rescind orders, rules or bye-laws 1106
22. Making of rules or bye-laws and issuing of orders between passing and commencement of enactment 1106
23. Provisions applicable to making of rules or bye-laws after previous publication 1106
24. Continuation of orders, etc., issued under enactments repealed and re-enacted 1107
Miscellaneous
25. Recovery of fines 1109
26. Provision as to offences punishable under two or more enactments 1109
27. Meaning of service by post 1109
28. Citation of enactments 1112
29. Saving for previous enactments, rules and bye-laws 1113
30. Application of Act to Ordinances 1113
30-A. [Repealed] 1113
31. [Repealed] 1113
The Schedule—[Repealed] 1113
Subject Index 1115