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Right to Information Act, 2005

In India the foundation of democracy is upheld by transparency and trust in governance. The Right to Information Act of 2005, hereinafter referred to as the (“RTI Act”) plays a major role in this belief allowing all citizens to request information, from government bodies promoting responsibility and effective administration. This important legislation revolutionized governance by giving citizens the right to request for and receive information from public bodies. In this blog, we will explore the history, objectives, crucial features along with substantial provisions of the Act and we have also recommended books related to right to information act.

Historical Background

The demand, for the Right to Information Act, 2005 in India stemmed from a desire for transparency and accountability in governance. The significance of the right to information was highlighted when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was established in 1948 guaranteeing individuals the liberty to access information and ideas freely without any limitations. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966 asserts that everyone should enjoy the freedom to express themselves and have access, to a variety of information and ideas.

The Supreme Court (SC) in the important case of State of UP Vs Raj Narain held that transparency is a crucial part of democracy and citizens should have the right to access records and information of government entities under the ambit of Article 19 of the Constitution. In the 1990s, a movement, for justice took place in Rajasthan led by activists like Aruna Roy and Nikhil Dey through the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS). The Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) launched initiatives to establish foundations and put into practice the idea of the Right to Information.

What is the Right to Information Act, 2005?

The Right to Information Act, 2005 is a crucial law established by the Parliament in 2005 under the democratic principles of transparency, accountability and trust. It has provided citizens with a path towards a more active participation in a democratic country like India.

According to the RTI Act, any Indian citizen has the authority to request information from an entity, which is accountable to furnish the requested details within a timeframe. The legislation encompasses public authorities and control of public authorities.

Key objectives of Right to Information Act, 2005

The RTI Act was formulated keeping in mind various key objectives of the democracy. They are as follows: –

Empowerment of citizens:

The Right to Information Act gives people the right to access information allowing them to play an active role, in democratic processes. This helps individuals make informed decisions interact with policies and ensure that public officials are responsible, for their deeds.

Transparency and openness:

The RTI Act aims to boost openness in how government institutions operate by granting citizens access, to information held by government and national bodies. Its goal is to reduce secrecy and increase oversight of government choices and activities.

Battle against and to prevent corruption:

Transparency and accountability play a role in the fight, against corruption. The Right to Information (RTI) Act acts as an instrument in uncovering government practices and ensuring those responsible for corruption are held answerable. By granting citizens access to details concerning government contracts, spending and decision-making processes the Act aids, in pinpointing cases of corruption and fostering responsibility.

Features of the Right to Information Act, 2005

RTI Act serves as a cornerstone of transparency and accountability in the system. This law gives each individual the ability to engage actively by providing them with the privilege to obtain data that public bodies hold. What specifically attributes to the strength of the RTI Act? Let’s explore its features:

Access to information through legal route:

The RTI Act provides all citizens with the entitlement to access information which are held by government bodies with some exceptions and limitations outlined in the law.

Wide coverage:

The law applies to every government department, ministry, public sector enterprises, NGOs which have got substantial funding from government and other entities established either by the Constitution or, through legislation. It extends its reach to both state government organizations guaranteeing information access nationwide. However, National intelligence and security agencies of the government are excluded from the scope of this act.

Streamlined application process (physical and electronically):

Indian Citizens have the option to submit an RTI request either in written application form or electronically detailing the information they are seeking from the government agency. Along with the request application a small fee, which differs based on the data requested must be paid.

Availability of time bound responses:

Government agencies must reply to RTI requests, within 30 days of receiving them. If the information requested pertains to someone’s life or liberty, then the response time is shortened to 48 hours. If you are not satisfied with the response, then you have an option to file an appeal to the First Appeal Authority (FAA).

Significant provisions of the Right to Information Act, 2005

This revolutionary law gives each individual the ability to uncover the information held by government bodies. What provisions contribute to the effectiveness of the RTI Act, as a powerful instrument? In this part of our blog, we will discuss the significant provisions which make this act intriguing.

1. Section 2(c) of the Act: This section pertains to the definition of the Central Public Information Officer. A Central Public Information Officer (CPIO) is an official designated by an agency, in India under the Right to Information (RTI) Act of 2005 at the level. The key responsibility of the CPIO is to support the enforcement of the RTI Act, within their agency.

2. Definition of Public authority under Section 2(h) of the Act: According to the Act, “Public authority” refers to any entity or organization of the Government that is set up or formed under the Indian Constitution through legislation passed by Parliament or a State Legislature or by an announcement or directive, from the relevant government body.

3. Section 4 – the Right to Information and obligations of Public Authorities: This part outlines the disclosure rules, for government agencies. It directs these agencies to keep records and share types of information on their websites or other platforms making it easier for the public to access. Government bodies should make an effort to proactively share information, with the public regularly using communication channels.

4. Section 6- Request for obtaining information: This section explains the process of requesting information. It states that any citizen who is in requirement of such information shall make a request application (written or digital) in Hindi or English or in the official language which is used in the area where such information is requested and shall pay a nominal applicable fee along with the request to the CPIO or SPIO.

5. Section 8 – Grounds for rejection of RTI requests: As per the section, the following information falls outside the scope of the RTI Act, 2005.

Matters concerning the sovereignty and integrity of India as the security, strategic, scientific or economic interests of the nation, relationships with foreign states, commercial confidentiality, trade secrets or intellectual property protection or any information that could jeopardize someone’s life or physical wellbeing;

Amendments to the Act

The primary goal, behind amending the RTI Act was to exclude political parties from its jurisdiction. Consequently, Parliament decided to amend the act and introduced the RTI Amendment Bill, 2013. Unfortunately, the bill did not progress as it lacked approval, from both houses of Parliament.

Then in 2019, there was another attempt in amending the Act through the RTI (Amendment Act) of 2019 which subsequently granted the Central Government the power to decide how long Information Commissioners can be in service, how much their salary and other benefits should be in monetary terms and other conditions of work.

Information that can be requested

Under the provisions of the Right to Information (RTI) Act of 2005 in India individuals have the privilege to request access to data maintained by authorities. This encompasses an array of categories including:

1. Info on Government policies and decisions: Individuals can seek information regarding government policies, decisions and the underlying reasoning behind them.

2. Government Initiatives: Information pertaining to government programs, initiatives and their execution can be requested.

3. Spending and budgets: Individuals have the right to inquire about public expenditure, budget allocations and how funds are utilized by government departments and agencies.

4. Records and official documents: Access can be sought for official records, documents, reports, memos, emails and any other pertinent information held by public authorities.

5. Project specifics: Details concerning public projects, contracts, tenders, agreements – including contractor details and beneficiaries – are open for inquiry.

6. Personnel related data: Information on government officials such as their salaries allowances promotions transfers can be requested.

7. Safety and health matters: Individuals can seek information, on public safety protocols health programs sanitation facilities and other relevant public health issues.

Furthermore, you can ask for details on cases and court decisions, rulings and legal viewpoints.

Commentary on the Right to Information Act by Dr. J N Barowalia & Abhishek Barowalia

This book on the RTI Act, 2005 is detailed and reliable resource providing a review of each section of the Act along with commentary to aid in understanding and interpreting the law. It includes an in-depth reference, to court decisions and judicial amendments and updates.

The book has got some important features like:

Wide range of issues have been considered and explained in a comprehensive manner.
Incorporates The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023
Includes important judicial developments and recent legislative changes.

Right to Information Act, 2005 along with allied Rules and Regulations

The bare act of the RTI Act published by LexisNexis is a comprehensively explained book that gives you a proper understanding of the act along with easy concepts of RTI Rules, The Central Information Commission (Management) Regulations, 2007.

Conclusion

The RTI Act of 2005 is a crucial law that embodies values like transparency, accountability and citizen empowerment in governance. It promotes openness and responsiveness in governance thereby bolstering institutions and fostering trust in the government. Nevertheless, there are hurdles such as tackling delays in handling RTI requests, raising awareness about the Act, among citizens and improving mechanisms for implementing it to prevent any misuse or exploitation of the law. By embracing the principles of the Act and working towards its execution we can unlock its benefits in nurturing a democratic society that is well informed.

FAQs

1. What are the main points of the RTI Act?
Transparency, accountability, democracy and trust are the main points.

2. What is the Right to Information Act 2005?
The RTI Act, 2005 stands as a landmark law that grants individuals the right to obtain information held by government entities.

3. In which case RTI can be rejected?
As per section 8, RTI can be rejected if it comes under the sovereignty and integrity of the nation as well as the strategic, security, or economic interests of the state.

4. What are the disadvantages of RTI?
Disadvantages include misuse or abuse of the right for personal vendettas and privacy concerns.

Cyber Law in India: Guardian of The Digital Realm

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In this digital and technology paced age, where Artificial Intelligence and Technology plays a significant role in our daily lives, there is a growing necessity of establishing laws to regulate the online world. As India moves forward in adopting technologies towards its’s realisation of the “Digital India” scheme, there is requirement of robust legal measures and frameworks to safeguard individuals, enterprises and the nation from the diverse risks that come with the digital age. In this blog, we will be discussing cybercrimes, cyber laws – its types, importance and objectives with a tabular differentiation between cybercrimes and cybersecurity.

Cybercrimes and types of cybercrimes

Cybercrime involves unlawful human actions conducted through computers, networks and/or the internet. These illegal activities can be aimed at individuals, businesses or governmental bodies with the goal of causing system disruptions obtaining data or engaging in schemes. There are numerous crimes associated in the cyber world, like: –

Breach of Cybersecurity:

A breach incident in cybersecurity occurs when an individual or organisation obtains unauthorized access, to computer systems or networks and such unauthorised access leads to data theft or operational disruptions. These incidents encompass a variety of forms such, as data breaches, ransomware attacks, cyber terrorism and supply chain infiltrations.

Cyber Threats:

Cyber threats refer to the illegal acts of hackers whose primary goals are to disrupt the computer network, harm the computer systems and/ or engage in malpractices on those devices. Examples include, but are not limited to Trojan attacks, Advanced Persistent threats (ATPs), phishing activities like fraudulent emails and messaging to trick individuals.

Digital Content Offenses and Cyberbullying & Harassment:

This category encompasses the creation or distribution of hateful content online. Digital content offenses include a wide range of activities, including, but not limited to identity theft, cyberbullying, phishing, child pornography, cyberstalking, morphing, hate speech and others. The Information Technology Act (IT Act) and the Indian Penal Code have specified punishment for each of such types of terrible acts.

Fraudulent Activities in the Cyberspace:

Credit card, OTP scams have taken over the world. These involve deceiving individuals or organizations, with the intention of obtaining electronic signatures, money or personal information. This also includes identity theft, investment frauds and Aadhar card frauds are on the rise in India.

What is Cyber Law?

Cyber law or information technology law involves studying matters related to using the internet electronic devices, for communication and computer networks. This field addresses topics such as agreements, digital crimes, data protection, privacy rights, jurisdiction in cyberspace and legal principles in the digital realm. Its significance lies in safeguarding the rights of people and businesses to maintain a trustworthy online space.

Cyber Law in India

In the age of India’s rapid development, cyber law has become an essential aspect of the legal framework. It covers a range of legal matters in the digital realm related to the use of electronic devices, computer networks and the increased use of social media. It plays an important role in protecting the rights of individuals and organizations in the world ensuring a safe and reliable online environment.

Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act):

The IT Act in India serves as the foundation of cyber law and covers types of cybercrimes, imposes punishments for crimes involving unauthorized accessing into computer systems stealing data, hacking, cyberterrorism and spreading inappropriate or offensive material on the internet.

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (DPDPA):

DPDPA focuses on regulating data collection, processing, storage and usage while bolstering privacy safeguards with an emphasis on securing minor consent through the permission of guardian.

Measures pertaining Cybersecurity

India has made huge strides in cybersecurity by establishing the National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCSC) and the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT In) to combat cyber threats, data breaches and to improve cybersecurity resilience. The IT Act mandates companies and organisations to report data breaches within a 6-hour window of noticing such data breach to CERT In for investigation and response to cyber-attack.

Cybercrime Investigation:

Specialized cyber cell units within the police force have been set up specifically for investigating and prosecuting cybercrimes efficiently. The Digital India Initiative by the Government needs to be applauded for the sound implementation of this initiative.

Importance of Cyber Law

The field of cyber law plays a very crucial role, in today’s digital era. Its significance arises from the increasing reliance on internet and computer networks across various aspects of our everyday lives ranging from personal interactions to businesses. The importance is highlighted below: –

Preserving Individual Rights: Cyber law serves to safeguard rights such as privacy, identity and property within the realm of the world. It helps to block entry to data, safeguards against cyberbullying and dangers online and secures intellectual assets from being violated.

Fighting Cybercrime: Cyber Laws are preventive and protective regulations pertaining to cyberspace crimes. They set out punishments for crimes such as hacking, phishing, data and identity theft, cyberbullying and online fraud. These laws also outline procedures for catching and punishing criminals and hence are aimed to prevent unlawful activities and hold individuals accountable for their wrongful actions.

Strengthening Cybersecurity: Within the domain of cyber law lie frameworks that aim to protect infrastructure encompassing computer networks, data storage systems and online services. It mandates cybersecurity measures, promotes secure practices and facilitates cooperation in combating cyber threats. Examples are Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) Directions to protect data theft.

Types of Cyber Laws

Cybercrimes laws:

The Information Technology Act addresses types of crimes such, as hacking into computer systems spoofing, altering source documents sharing content cyber stalking and more. These offenses are categorized as cybercrimes against individuals and cybercrimes, against property.

Cybersecurity laws:

Cybersecurity primarily aims to safeguard systems such, as computer networks, data storage platforms and internet services against cyber threats. Legal guidelines and regulations in cyber law provide the foundation for enforcing strategies like incident response plans such, as those outlined in the IT (The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team) Rules of 2013.

Data Privacy and Protection:

Data protection involves the management of data, how it is gathered, stored, utilized and transferred globally. Cyber law oversees these operations by setting out rules to safeguard the confidentiality and integrity of details. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act of 2023 (DPDPA), along with the IT (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, from 2011 (SPDI rules) are aimed at safeguarding individuals’ privacy and preventing access or misuse of their information. The notion of “Consent” holds importance in this context.

Objectives of Cyber Law

Cyber law has numerous objectives all with the purpose of establishing an environment that is safe secure and reliable, for individuals, organizations and nations. Few advantages of cyber law and its objectives have been enumerated below: –

Preserving Privacy: Cyber law ensures that individuals privacy rights are protected in the world by ensuring collection, storage and proper processing of personal data.

Shielding Identity: Cyber law acts as a safeguard for Individuals identities by preventing unlawful access, theft or misuse of identity. This protection helps prevent impersonation and identity fraud.

Preventing Cybercrime: Cyber law defines boundaries and penalties, for cybercrimes. By doing it discourages individuals from participating in malicious and unlawful activities online.

Difference between Cybercrime and Cybersecurity

BASIS	CYBERCRIME	CYBERSECURITY
Definition	Commission of illegal activities through use of computer networks and programs.	Protection of computer systems and networks from malicious digital activities.
Focus On	Exploitation, harms towards Individuals, property and government.	Security, prevention and protection of harmful activities.
Legal Framework	IT Act, Criminal laws, Contracts	IT Act, Data Protection Laws
Objectives	Deterring crimes, protection of individuals, and to impose punishments on offenders.	Protection of assets and information, incident response plans and to minimise data attacks.
Examples	IT Act, IPC that is going to be Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita from 1^st July.	IPC that is going to be Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita from 1^st July, CERT-IN Rules, The Digital Personal Data Protection Act.

How to protect yourself on the Internet?

1. Use Anti-virus software- Antivirus programs are designed to identify and eliminate suspicious software that can pose a threat, to your device and compromise its security. It’s important to scan your devices for viruses and malware to ensure that they remain safeguarded.

2. Use strong passwords and 2 factor authentications: It’s very necessary to prioritize passwords and multi factor authentication to protect your accounts from unauthorized access. Avoid using information such, as birthdays, names or common words, in your passwords. Instead opt for a combination of upper- and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols to create strong unbreakable passwords.

3. Be cautious of sharing information and the content you post: Phishing scams are frequently utilized by cybercriminals to deceive people into exposing information or clicking on links. It’s important to be cautious of emails those containing attachments or links. Limit the amount of information you share online on social media platforms. Refrain, from disclosing details such, as your home address or phone number.

Books to Gain More Knowledge

“Cyber Law” by Dr Pavan Duggal

This in-depth commentary provides a clear and concise knowledge of the Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act). The commentary discusses a range of subjects including the guidelines, rules, policies and notifications established within the Act. Over the years we have seen remarkable advancements in cyber law principles. The field of Cyber law has advanced swiftly and developed dynamically. Subsequently, the commentary aims to explore, dissect and assess numerous sections of Cyber law present in India and how they relate to various human’s actions.

“Information Technology Law and Practice” by Vakul Sharma and Seema Sharma

This eighth edition of Information Technology: Law and Practice is a treasure trove of section-wise commentary that captures the journey of the Act. It has a lucid language with concept notes, illustration, anecdotes, and diagrams. It contains landmark judgments related to Privacy, Freedom of Speech and Expression, Defamation, Child Pornography, and so on. It also contains comparative analysis of related provisions in different jurisdictions to get an overview of the subject.

“Computers, Internet, and New Technology Laws” by Karnika Seth

This comprehensive resource is an explainer on all the latest national and international regulations, case laws, concept notes and emerging trends that have shaped the digital laws realm. The book revolves around the emerging crimes such as phishing, online trolling sexting, and revenge porn. The resource is dynamic and will empower a wide range of readers including judges, legal professionals, privacy individuals, cyber-crime lawyers, IT-ITES Experts, international organisations and companies and will help them gain practical guidance.

Conclusion

As the digital world continues to evolve, cyber laws have a huge impact in protecting the rights, security of individual’s organizations and nations. The objective of cyber law is diverse including safeguarding rights as well as deterring and prosecuting cybercrime. The IT Act has been instrumental in addressing the emerging challenges posed by cyber threats and stands as a testament to the Digital India Scheme while also promoting a safe digital environment within our country. Therefore, cyber law stands as a foundation in the digital realm by providing a legal framework to tackle the complex challenges and opportunities that arise from the ever-dynamic technological landscape.

FAQs

How many cyber laws are there in India?

There are 2 key legislations- Information Technology (IT) Act, 2002 and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA), 2023

What is meant by cyber law?

It is a field of law which caters to the growing needs of the digital world and governs computer networks and programs.

Who is the father of cyber security?

Bob Thomas

Which is the main cyber law in India?

The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2002

Who introduced cyber law in India?

Department of Electronics and after that Ministry of Information Technology (IT)

What are the cyber law examples?

Information Technology (IT) Act, Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) Directions

Shielding Creativity: Understanding Intellectual Property Rights in India

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Imagine coming up with a fabulous idea – a lyrical music, a ground breaking invention, or a unique design. Intellectual Property Rights act as a form of protection for your creative invention to ensure that others cannot merely pick it off and call it as a work of their own creativity.

Various categories fall under intellectual property, such as copyrights covering amazing creative works like music, art, and books etc. Other categories are- patents protecting novel inventions, trademarks which help safeguarding logos and brand names, trade secrets which protect valuable and confidential business information. Whether you’re a budding author, a tech expert with a ground breaking invention, or an entrepreneur with a very unique brand, understanding IPR is crucial part towards protecting your creativity.

These rights work as legal superpowers, that you can use to protect and exploit your creativity as per your terms and conditions. This article unravels the intricate yet interesting world of Intellectual Property Rights in India, serving as a beacon for creators, innovators and anyone striving to understand the legal world of intellectual property.

What is IPR?

Intellectual Property Rights refers to the legal rights attributed to persons over the creativity of their minds, for a specific period of time. Usually, an exclusive right is granted to such person/creator or his assignee over the creativity. Intellectual property rights includes, but is not limited to Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, Geographical Indications.

Need of Intellectual Property Rights

Innovation and Creativity:

Intellectual property rights are essential in fostering innovation, originality and creativity. They offer inventors and creators the motivation to invest their resources, both financial and time into the development of ideas and products. The assurance that they will receive benefits from their accomplishments serves as a driving force for the creator of the work. In the absence of IPRs there would be no incentive to innovate as anyone could freely replicate creations without authorizations and permissions of the original creator.

Economic Growth:

Creators in India develop the work which then attracts foreign investments. This helps in increasing foreign exchange and GDP of the country. Moreover, consumers benefit from this as they get access to high quality products which then improves their quality of life. There is also an increase in employment opportunities due to new technologies and capabilities. This ecosystem helps propelling economic growth.

Legal Protection to Creators:

Understanding the role of protecting intellectual property involves recognizing the legal measures it provides. Violating intellectual property rights can result in legal ramifications, which not only protects the rights of creators to pursue legal recourse but also maintains a fair market where creations are valued.

Research and Development:

Intellectual Property Rights provide individuals with privileges to their inventions, discoveries and data. This ecosystem encourages investment in areas of knowledge, safeguards against copying and promotes collaboration without concerns of misuse. As a result, it nurtures a research and development landscape that fuels advancement and societal improvement by delivering innovative solutions to our most critical problems.

Types of Intellectual Property

There are four main types of intellectual property rights recognized globally:

Patents:

Patents provide inventors with exclusive rights over their inventions. In India, the Patents Act of 1970 governs the registration and protection of patents. A patent grants the inventor the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing their invention without their permission. It incentivizes technological advancements and promotes economic growth.

Copyrights:

Copyrights protect original literary, artistic, musical, and dramatic works. The Copyrights Act of 1957 safeguards the rights of creators and provides them with exclusive rights over their creations. Copyrights give creators the authority to reproduce, distribute, perform, display, and adapt their works. This helps in fostering creativity and preserving cultural expressions.

Trademarks:

Trademarks are distinctive signs, symbols, or logos that identify and distinguish goods or services of one entity from those of others. The Trade Marks Act of 1999 governs trademark registration and protection in India. Trademarks play a crucial role in building brand recognition, consumer trust, and market reputation.

Trade Secrets:

Trade secrets refer to confidential information that provides a competitive advantage to businesses. Unlike patents or copyrights, trade secrets are not publicly disclosed. Businesses maintain the secrecy of valuable information such as formulas, manufacturing processes, customer lists, or business strategies. The protection of trade secrets encourages businesses to invest in research and development while enjoying a competitive edge in the market.

Different Types of Intellectual Property Rights in India

India has established comprehensive legal frameworks for the protection of various forms of intellectual property. Let’s take a closer look at the key legislations governing intellectual property rights in the country:

The Copyrights Act, 1957 (“Copyright Act”)

The Copyright Act of 1957 provides copyright protection to literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and cinematographic works. It safeguards the rights of creators and ensures the fair use of copyrighted content. This act also recognizes the rights of performers and producers of sound recordings.

Related Book:

The Copyright Act, 1957

The Trade Marks Act, 1999 (“Trade Marks Act”)

The Trade Marks Act of 1999 regulates the registration and protection of trademarks in India. It specifies the requirements for trademark registration, the rights conferred to trademark owners, and the remedies available in case of trademark infringement.

The Patents Act, 1970 (“Patents Act”)

The Patents Act of 1970 governs the registration, protection, and grant of patents in India. It outlines the criteria for patent eligibility, the rights of patent holders, and the procedures for patent examination and opposition.

Related Book:

Universal’s Concise Commentary “Patents Act, 1970”

The Design Act, 2000 (“Design Act”)

The Design Act of 2000 provides protection for industrial designs in India. It grants exclusive rights to the creators of aesthetic designs applied to articles, thereby preventing the unauthorized copying or imitation of such designs.

The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 (“GI Act”)

The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act of 1999 safeguards the geographical indications of goods in India. This act protects the unique characteristics and reputation associated with goods originating from specific geographical regions.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act, 2001 (“Plant Varieties Act”)

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmer’s Rights Act of 2001 provides protection to plant varieties and the rights of farmers in India. It encourages the development of new plant varieties while ensuring fair compensation and rights for farmers.

The Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout-Design Act, 2000 (“SICLD Act”)

The Semiconductor Integrated Circuits Layout-Design Act of 2000 protects the layout designs of integrated circuits. It grants exclusive rights to the creators of such designs and ensures their commercial exploitation.

Trademark registration in India

Trademark registration in India involves the submission of specific documents and essential information. The following list outlines the commonly required documentation for this process:

Applicant Details– Full name, address, and nationality of the applicant. It is extremely crucial to provide complete details of the applicant, such as his full name, address, and nationality.
Logo or Trademark Representation – Submission of the logo or representation of the proposed trademark. Submitting an accurate representation of the logo or trademark is simply important.
Goods or Services Description – A comprehensive description of the goods or services associated with the trademark. It should be comprehensive enough to describe the goods or services associated with the concerned trademark completely, leaving no room for doubt.
Power of Attorney (if applicable) – In cases where the applicant is represented by an attorney or agent, a Power of Attorney document is required. If you have authorized someone else to act on your behalf, for example, an attorney or an agent, then it is necessary to submit the relevant Power of Attorney document.
Proof of Claim to Prior Use (if any) – Documentation substantiating the applicant’s prior use of the trademark, if applicable. If you’ve used the trademark before, you will need to provide documentation to back up your claim and prove your prior use of the trademark.
Declaration of Intention to Use the Trademark – A formal declaration affirming the applicant’s intention to use the trademark in connection with the specified goods or services. You must make a formal declaration to affirm your intention to use the trademark for the specified goods or services.

Adhering to the submission of these documents is crucial for a smooth and successful trademark registration process in India, ensuring that the application meets the necessary legal requirements.

A Recommended Reading List for a Comprehensive Understanding

For a comprehensive exploration of intellectual property rights in India, consider delving into the following recommended books:

Law Relating to Intellectual Property by Sreenivasulu N S:

This masterpiece by Sreenivasulu Sir comprehensively covers all bases and talks about all categories of intellectual property rights- Copyrights, trademarks, patents etc., across regions like USA, Europe and India. The book has made an attempt to present, discuss, debate, analyse, comprehend, and update the knowledge about the law on various fields of intellectual property.

Intellectual Property Law Package

Intellectual Property Law package consists of eBooks of the best of the titles on intellectual property including the latest Law Relating to Intellectual Property, 3rd edition by Sreenivasulu N S. You can create your personalized digital legal library with LexisNexis eBook packages and get instant access!

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Conclusion

Intellectual property rights are essential for fostering innovation, creativity, and economic growth. In India, various legislations govern different forms of intellectual property. The Copyrights Act, Trade Marks Act, Patents Act, Design Act, GI Act, Plant Varieties Act, and SICLD Act provide a robust legal framework for the protection and promotion of intellectual property rights. By understanding and respecting these rights, we contribute to a thriving ecosystem that nurtures and rewards innovation, benefiting creators, businesses, and society as a whole.

FAQs

What is India’s national intellectual property rights?

India’s national intellectual property rights encompass patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets, among other forms of intellectual property.

How many intellectual property rights are there in India?

India recognizes various types of intellectual property rights, including patents, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, industrial designs, geographical indications, and plant varieties.

What are the four types of intellectual property rights?

The four types of intellectual property rights are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets.

What is the role of IPR in India?

Intellectual property rights play a crucial role in promoting innovation, creativity, and economic development in India. They protect the rights of creators and encourage investment in research and development.

What is the first IPR in India?

The first intellectual property right in India was the Patents Act of 1856, which provided for the grant of exclusive rights over inventions.

Related Blog: Property Laws in India: A Suitable Guide

New Criminal Laws in India

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For years the Indian Penal Code (IPC), Indian Evidence Act and Code of Criminal Procedure have cast a shadow over India’s legal system. While these laws have been the foundation of our justice system, they have struggled to address the complexities of modern India. A new era has dawned and India has taken great steps towards evolution in the field of law with introduction of new criminal laws. The initiative originated in 2020 when the Committee for Reforms in Criminal Laws (CRCL) was established, and chaired by Prof (Dr.) Ranbir Singh. The transformative bills, named as Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA) and Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) promise to bring about a rebirth by replacing these outdated and erstwhile statutes with new legal frameworks that are specifically designed for the needs of 21^st century India.

Historical Context of Criminal Laws in India

Throughout India’s history, the development of its criminal justice system can be traced across multiple periods including the Vedic age, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire era and up to the present stage. During the Vedic era, principles rooted in Rig Vedic teachings played a role in determining punishments and maintaining order under the guidance of Dharma. Subsequently during the Delhi Sultanate Era, there was an evolution influenced by sources like Smriti and the implementation of Shariat law during that era.

During the time of the Mughal Empire, the Mughals created the Mahakuma e Adalat, a department responsible, for dealing with both criminal and civil cases under Islamic law. However, there were multiple challenges that came with this system. These challenges included the absence of a distinction between the judiciary and the executive branches, inconsistencies, in the application of criminal laws and instances of corruption.

During the Colonial period there was a paradigm shift. The East India Company (EIC) played a key role, in shaping this transformation alongside the introduction of court systems and the establishment of the High Court. These developments set the foundation, for the enactment of codes in the 1860s.

These bills have been revised based on recommendations, from the Standing Committee and had been approved by both houses of Parliament. Hon’ble President gave her assent on December 25^th, 2023. The need for reforms and changes in legislation is the realization that the existing laws are outdated remnants of the colonial era reflecting a criminal justice system that aimed to oppress rather than serve justice. Many sections of the old laws have become irrelevant and obsolete requiring an overhaul.

Detailed Overview of the New Criminal Laws

Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023

New criminal law Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita of 2023 is an endeavour to redefine and redirect the code and has replaced the erstwhile Indian Penal Code, 1860. Through amending, repealing and adding sections this law aims to take a nuanced approach towards offenses by imposing penalties on actions that pose a threat to the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India. Additionally, it tackles challenges like terrorism, organized crime, by differentiating between serious and minor offenses and imposing strict punishments for serious offenses. The idea of ‘Community Service’, as a penalty for crimes is now being implemented under the law focusing on a more rehabilitative approach to justice. The recent legislation has added “snatching” as an offense, under Section 304 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.

Bharatiya Nagrik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 aims to refine our Criminal procedure system. By setting timelines for investigations it intends to ensure that justice is more accessible and responsive to the needs of the people. In this new criminal law one notable change can be seen in Section 176 of the Act, which mandates investigation for crimes carrying a punishment of seven (7) years imprisonment or more. This means that appointed experts will be involved in conducting on site investigations. Additionally, Section 173 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita embraces the new digital age by allowing digital methods for trials, inquiries and proceedings. This shift toward documentation and proceedings aligns with advancements in technology and helps streamline legal processes. One revolutionary concept is the implementation of Zero FIRs. According to Section 173 of the Act, individuals have the right to file a First Information Report (FIR) at any police station, for a cognizable offense regardless of its jurisdiction. It states that the FIR must be transferred to the police station, for handling crimes committed in that particular area within a span of 15 days. Crime and Criminal tracking system will be used for benefit of the public.

Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam has replaced the Indian Evidence Act of 1872 resulting in alterations to the structure of Evidence Law. In today’s environment, where technology holds great importance, this new criminal law acknowledges electronic evidence, as any information produced or transmitted by a device or system that can store or recover data. Section 57 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam emphasizes the recognition of electronic records as primary evidence. Moreover, the Act includes provisions that enable the electronic presentation of even oral evidence. This advancement makes it possible for witnesses to testify remotely ensuring that digital records hold the same significance as traditional paper documents. Section 24 of the Act, expands on the idea of joint trials.

Comparison of Old vs New Criminal Laws

BASIS	OLD CRIMINAL LAWS	NEW CRIMINAL LAWS
Laws and Philosophy	The laws were Indian Penal Code, Code of Criminal Procedure, Indian Evidence Act. The philosophy was to provide punitive and retributive justice.	The laws are Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, Bharatiya Nagrik Suraksha and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam. The philosophy is to provide restorative justice focused on rehabilitation and victim centric.
Ideology	Developed by Britishers under British oversight and ideology	Built for the Modern India, with focus on ever dynamic legal landscape.
Sentencing	There were fixed punishments and penalties specified for various kinds of crimes.	There are provisions for fixed punishments as well as restorative justice provisions like imposition of community service or rehabilitation.
Admissibility of Evidence	The acts provided strict and rigid rules for testimonies of witness and sometimes relied upon unreliable circumstantial evidence. Electronic evidence had limited admissibility.	Scope of admissibility was expanded to take into account digital evidence and records and to strengthen investigations.
Trial Procedures	Tiring, cumbersome and lengthy procedures due to which due to which people face delays and backlogs in courts.	Aimed at expediting the trial process by implementing time limit and leverage technology to enhance efficiency.

New Criminal Law Books

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023

This new bare act by Lexis Nexis covers the entire Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita and contains comparisons of both the new act and the old and erstwhile Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. It also has selected sections of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 and relevant provisions of allied Acts for an ease of understanding.

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023

This new bare act by LexisNexis is a comprehensive work on the The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and contains a comparison of it with the old Indian Penal Code. It covers the fines and punishments increased in a tabular format. Relevant provisions of allied Acts have also been included for ease of reference. The act has traces of the Indian Penal Code at various places for reference, and is an ideal read for lawyers, students and judges.

The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023

This new bare act by Lexis Nexis has covered all bases of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam and comprises of a comparison of the Indian Evidence and the Bharatiya Saskhya Adhiniyam along with cross-referencing to the corresponding sections of the old act. Relevant provisions of allied Acts have also been included for ease of reference.

Analysis of New Criminal Laws

India’s criminal laws have sparked a closer look into the difficulties, consequences and objections associated with these changes. A particular area of concern that has garnered increased scrutiny is the increase in the duration of police custody under the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita. Raising the limit from 15 days to either 60 or 90 days depending on the severity of the offense brings up questions about striking a balance, between law enforcement requirements and protecting civil liberties.

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita introduces a series of broadly defined offences, particularly those pertaining to the security of the state. While the omission of the term “sedition” is notable, its replacement, “Acts endangering sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India,” retains ambiguous wording, contributing to concerns about potential over criminalization. The expansive scope of offences like “organised crime” and “terrorist act” remains, and while attempts have been made to clarify and limit their definitions, questions linger about potential misuse and impact on individuals. Issues like high vacancies, judicial overload, and the need for comprehensive infrastructure development and personnel training for forensic experts and audio-video recording of statements must be diligently tackled to realize the intended efficiencies.

Section 57 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam emphasizes the recognition of electronic records as primary evidence. Moreover, the Act includes provisions that enable the electronic presentation of even oral evidence which is in line with the digital transformation the country is going through.

The new criminal laws also aims to streamline processes through mandatory audio-video recording of search and seizure, the comprehensive impact depends on addressing deep-rooted structural barriers. Achieving the intended reforms demands a holistic approach, encompassing systemic changes, infrastructure development.

Driving Forces Behind the Reforms

These new laws were created as a result of socio- political factors. Demand for justice that prioritizes victims, the need for tech regulations due to the digital revolution and evolving societal values all played a key role. Additionally, there were pressures such as judicial activism highlighting inefficiencies and international obligations as well as diverse opinions from judges. While they acknowledged the potential for improvement they also emphasized the importance of understanding and implementation. It has also been pointed out that justice has been delivered slow in India due to a number of pending cases in various courts. Therefore, there is a need to transition towards a modern legal system.

Conclusion

The analysis of the Bills reveals gaps and shortcomings that warrant attention. The exclusion of the erstwhile section 377 of the IPC by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) poses a gap, leaving no specific provision addressing the rape of an adult man. The proposed laws bring in offenses that are worded in a manner particularly concerning the states security. This could potentially result in over-criminalization and unclear legal provisions. Despite these concerns, the legislative initiatives encapsulated in the three Acts underscore India’s commitment to reform its legal and investigative systems. A notable focus on technology and forensic science positions the legal framework in the modern era. The Acts demonstrate a commitment to providing enhanced protection for marginalized and vulnerable segments of society, aligning the criminal justice system with current needs and values.

FAQS

What are the major new criminal laws introduced in India in 2023?
The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA).

How do the new criminal laws differ from the previous ones?

The new criminal laws bring substantial changes, addressing contemporary challenges. Home Minister Amit Shah introduce provisions for Sedition to be treated as treason, new duration for punishments, e-trials, redefine the concept of police custody, incorporate technological advancements in investigations, and establish deadlines for various legal processes.

Why were these changes in the criminal laws necessary?

The changes were deemed necessary to modernize the criminal justice system, aligning it with evolving societal needs and technological advancements.

Are there any controversial aspects of the new laws?

Controversies surround aspects such as the extension of police custody duration, potential misuse of expanded powers, and concerns about over criminalization. The repeal of certain sections, like the erstwhile section 377 addressing rape of an adult man, has sparked discussions about the completeness and effectiveness of the new laws.

How can the public access more information about these new laws?

To access detailed information about these new laws, the public can refer to official government sources, legal databases, and the official websites of legislative bodies, books and articles of lawyers and law firms. Government announcements, press releases, and legal commentaries can provide insights of the new laws.

Laws for Women in India: An Overview

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India has an extensive history. Throughout the centuries its legal system has transformed to reflect the evolving social and cultural dynamics. However, women have historically faced disadvantages, under law. Unfortunately, some of the existing laws for women in India, continue to be discriminatory and detrimental. There has been a movement aimed at reforming Indian law to ensure fairness and equality for women. This movement has achieved progress in bringing about a lot of changes. Nevertheless, there still remains a lot of work to be done ahead. This article aims to provide an overview of the status of women’s rights in India and the laws for women in India in place, to protect them.

Rights of Women in India

Right to Maintenance:

Every married woman has the right to receive support, or in legal terms, maintenance from her husband even if they are not living together. This right is protected by laws for women in India such as, the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA) and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (DVA). As, per Section 24 of the HMA either the wife or husband can seek monetary assistance. To be eligible, for this support the petitioner must show that they do not have a source of income to support themselves.

Right to Equal Pay:

One of the most important labour rights is the concept of equal pay for the same amount or equal amount of work done. In India the Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 (ERA) is the primary law that ensures both male and female workers are paid equally for doing work which are the same for both. The ERA also prohibits discrimination, against women based on gender in employment related matters like recruitment and promotion.

Right to Dignity and Decency:

Every woman should lead a life of respect, equality and decency, free from any form of fear, force, violence or discrimination. According to Article 21 of the Constitution every citizen, including women is entitled to the right to life and dignity. Section 354A of the Indian Penal Code criminalizes harassment. The Sexual Harassment of Women, at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 establishes a framework for women to report incidents of harassment in their workplace and seek measures to address them.

Right against Domestic Violence:

Some or the other day, it’s always in the news that a daughter, wife, daughter-in law faces harassment and abuse, not only sexual but physical and mental too. DVA provides protection of women from domestic violence. If any woman suffers such abuse and violence, section 12 of DVA becomes applicable.

Rights at Workplace:

Each and every woman is entitled to a work environment that’s safe and conducive, to their well-being. It is crucial that they are free from any form of discrimination or harassment. The Constitution along with legislations such as the Equal Remuneration Act of 1975 the Maternity Benefit Act of 1961 and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act of 2013 guarantees these rights to women.

Right against Dowry:

Lots of women are not able to get married because of unnecessary dowry demands from the other side. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 prohibits the dowry system, i.e. both, the giving and taking of dowry. Every woman in this country has the right to be free from dowry demands, harassment and abuse.

Right to Free Legal Aid:

Where a woman cannot pay for her legal support, she will have the opportunity of attaining it free of charge. Under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, this is regarded as a right. The Legal Services Authorities Act provides for establishment of legal services authorities at the central, state and district level.

Right to Self-Defence:

Under Section 100 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), every person, including a woman has the right to protect her body from any violence, attack or assault which can lead to apprehension of death, grievous hurt, kidnapping etc.

Laws for Women in India

In India there are laws that safeguard the rights of women, in aspects such, as family matters, criminal offenses, employment conditions and property ownership. Our constitution provides rights to ensure the protection and progress of women. In this section of the article we will delve into the laws that protect women in India.

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

Protection of Women from DVA, 2005 is one of the key Acts and laws for women in India meant for protecting women who are oppressed by domestic violence. The law provides for strict legal actions against husbands that harass, abuse and maltreat women in their own houses. The law strives to provide protection orders, residence orders, as well as monetary relief, which is meant to secure their safety and general wellbeing.

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 along with Rules, 2006

This bare act by Universal and Lexis Nexis covers all aspects of the law and contains both the Act and subsequent rules together. It is a must read for lawyers, students and people dealing in family matters.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

The main intention of the Act was to stop the menace of dowry in India. It completely prohibited the giving and taking of dowry. It also aims to protect woman who want to get married but aren’t able to because of frivolous dowry demands from the prospective groom’s side. However, still there are a lot of cases surrounding dowry and it has been very difficult to enforce this law because of the huge population of the country and cases not being filed due to fear.

The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013

It deals with sexual harassment of women at the work place. It provides a legal basis that will help curb any such harassments and protects women, hence creating a safe and fair working atmosphere free from sexual harassment of women and their abuse. The Act mandates establishing of internal committees and POSH Policy for addressing complaints and prompt redressing of the cases.

Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013

This latest (2023) edition of the bare act by Universal and Lexis Nexis comprehensively covers the act and its subsequent rules. It is a must read for lawyers, HRs and people working in companies and organisations.

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971

In India, termination of pregnancy is regulated under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 (MTP Act). Under this act a woman is allowed to end her pregnancy within 20 weeks if it’s essential, for preserving her life poses a risk to her physical or mental wellbeing or if the pregnancy resulted from rape.

Universal and Lexis Nexis’s bare act on Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 along with Rules and Regulations contains the Act, as well as the 2003 rules and regulations which is an ideal reading material for those who want to learn the law.

The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961

It is difficult for working mothers to work during childbirth and in pre-child birth stage. Hence, the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 was established. The Act mandates for a minimum of 12 weeks of maternity leave to mothers. In the 2017 Amendment, this was increased to a maximum of 26 weeks.

Universal and Lexis Nexis’s Bare Act on Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 is an ideal guide for practitioners, students and the like because it contains all the recent amendments and rules & regulations.

The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976

The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (ERA) provides for a gender non-discriminatory and equality based legislation that mandates that men and women both should be paid equal remuneration for the same or equal work that they do, thus providing them with equal benefits and economic opportunities at work.

Universal and Lexis Nexis’s Bare Act on Equal Remuneration Act (ERA), 1976 which has been repealed by the Code on Wages, 2019 contains in it all allied rules and regulations.

The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

This act also seeks to prevent forced marriages that involve minors, so as to safeguard their rights. It aims to guarantee that girls are allowed to mature, educate themselves and be able to make wise choice concerning their lives and marriages which in turn secures their health and wellbeing. However, it has been quite difficult to enforce this law in many parts of the country due to customs and traditions.

The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act is a Landmark legislation and Universal and Lexis Nexis’s bare act cover all bases of the laws properly.

The Hindu Succession Act, 1956

The Amendment Act, passed in 2005 known as the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 granted daughters rights to property in joint families. This change ensured that both men and women are treated as beneficiaries when it comes to inheriting property.

Hindu Succession Act, 1956 bare act by Universal and Lexis Nexis give it a new life by including model specimens of Deed for appointment of an Heir, Petitions for Grant of Succession Certificate, Petitions for Grant and Revocation of Letters of Administration of Property

The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

The act mandates that there can be no indecent representation of women in any form- whether print, media, advertisements. It strives to protect the dignity and decency of women and promotes respect towards women.

Universal and Lexis Nexis’s bare act on The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 covers the laws and the rules respectively.

The National Commission for Women Act, 1990 (NCW)

The (NCW) was formed in 1990 through the enactment of the NCW Act. Its primary objective is to safeguard and advance women’s rights in India. The NCW actively tackles matters concerning gender-based discrimination, violence, against women and various violations of women’s rights.

One of the most important bodies for protection of women and the National Commission Acts Bare act by Universal and Lexis Nexis covers all allied laws -Women Act, 1990, Minorities Act, 1992 etc., hence an ideal read for all stakeholders.

Conclusion

India has a range of provisions and laws for women in India, that safeguard their rights across various aspects of life such, as criminal offenses, family issues etc. These laws have played a role in shielding women from discrimination and violence while fostering gender equality. However certain obstacles persist in implementing these laws. These challenges encompass a lack of awareness, societal and cultural norms as weak enforcement mechanisms. It remains imperative to continue our efforts in addressing these issues and ensuring that every right and law for women in India can be exercised by them without fear of violence.

FAQs

What is the law and status of women in India?

The laws for women in India are many, like Domestic Violence Act, Equal Remuneration Act that protects as well as provides opportunities to women

Do women have equal rights in India?

Yes, women have right to equal remuneration for the same/equal work done by both men and women.

What are the main women rights?

Main women rights are right to Dignity and Decency, Right against domestic violence etc.

What is property right of women in India?

After the Hindu Succession Amendment Act, women now have rights over ancestral property.

Who is the first women in law in India?

India’s first woman lawyer is Cornelia Sorabji.

Property Laws in India: A Suitable Guide

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The property laws in India have gone through a lot of changes and developments over time and are regulated through various acts and regulations. The Constitution, lays down the structure of property laws in the country ensuring that individuals have the authority to own, possess and dispose of property as a constitutional right. The Transfer of Property Act 1882 (TPA) serves as the primary legislation governing property law in India. Over time these laws have been regularly updated to keep up with the dynamic environment of our legal system. In this article we aim to provide an overview of the evolution of property law in India explore, types of properties and shed light on the laws that currently shape the dynamic landscape of property rights and regulations.

What is Property and Property Law?

Property, in a legal sense means any form of interest or right over in a thing. That thing can be tangible/intangible, moveable/immovable etc.

Property law is the set of rules and regulations that governs how a property can be acquired, owned utilized and alienated. It encompasses a range of subjects such as transfer of property procedures, contract act principles and inheritance laws, among others.

History of Property Law in India

Property is one of the fundamental elements of socio-economic system in India. For a long time, the justice system was based on morality, conscience but it lacked uniformity. This system led to a lot of crimes even in the property scenario. Property law was at an advancement phase during the Mughal age. It instilled Zamindari System into the land tenure by the Mughals. This system made land owned by a king to give it on lease to zamindars who in turn gave the land for cultivation to the farmers and collected taxes from them. The British East India company started collecting lands in India during the 18th-century. There were several rebellions by peasants as the company’s land acquisition policies were characterized on grounds of arbitrariness and exploitation. In 1885, The Indian National Congress advocated for land reforms in India. The government of “Independent India” promulgated several legislations relating to land reforms. The Zamindar system was finally eliminated through Zamindari Abolition Act, 1956 and the people that cultivated the land now had ownership rights over it.

In the case of Vineeta Sharma vs Rakesh Sharma (2020) 9 SCC 1, the apex court held that a woman/daughter also has an equal right over her ancestral property. Since its independence, property law in India has changed a lot. With the changing trends, the government has come up with several new laws and regulations.

What are the types of Property Law in India?

There are 3 major acts that deal with Property Laws in India

1. Transfer of Property Act, 1882:

The Transfer of Property Act is a law, in India that governs and establishes guidelines and procedures for the transfer of property more specifically, immovable property like land and real estate. It sets out the principles and procedures for transferring property through means such as sale, mortgage, lease, gift and exchange. Its primary purpose is to facilitate the transfer of property, from one individual to another.

Related Book:

The Transfer of Property Act

This exceptional piece of work authored by Sir Mulla and published by LexisNexis provides a commentary, on the TPA. This esteemed legal masterpiece remains the go to reference for scholars and practitioners. This new and updated edition contains key features like landmark judgements, legal development etc.

2. Partition Act of 1893:

The Partition Act of 1893 is significant, in the realm of property law because it addresses the challenges that arise when properties owned jointly need to be divided among its co-owners. This legislation provides a framework that helps both courts and individuals navigate the complexities of partition cases ensuring a fair distribution of property rights.

Related Book:

Partition Act, 1893

LexisNexis’s bare act on Partition Act, 1893 contains all provisions and amendments of the Act. It stands tall amidst others by providing Model Specimens of Partition deed which is must have for lawyers, practitioners and common individuals too.

3. Indian Succession Act, 1925:

The succession law sets out the guidelines, for how property’s distributed when someone dies either with or without a will. The Indian Succession Act of 1925 specifically deals with cases involving a written will (testamentary succession). However, if there is no written will, the laws regarding intestate succession or unwilled succession outlined in the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 would apply.

Related Book:

The Indian Succession Act

Book: Paruck and K. Kannan’s Book on Indian Succession Act published by LexisNexis is the most comprehensive and an exceptional piece on Indian Succession Law. Everything has been elucidated in a clear and systematic manner. The book aims to cover all judgments from the Supreme Court and various High Courts and includes updates reflecting any changes in legislation.

Types of Property under Transfer of Property Act, 1882

Movable property:

It is the type of property which is not affixed to land can be moved from one place to another. According to Section 2(9) of the Registration Act of 1908, movable property includes “standing timber, growing crops and grass, fruit upon and juice in trees, and property of every other description, except immovable property.”

Immovable Property:

Things rooted or attached to the earth and which are not reasonably capable of being moved from one place to another are called immovable property. Section 2(6) of the Registration Act of 1908 states that an “Immovable property means and includes land, buildings, hereditary allowances, rights to ways, lights, or any other benefit to arise out of the land, and things attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything which is attached to the earth, but not standing timber, growing crops nor grass.”

Other types of Property in India

Intellectual Property:

As per the definition of WIPO, Intellectual property (IP) encompasses forms of creations including inventions, literature and art designs as well, as symbols, names and images. The legal protection of IP involves patents, copyrights and trademarks that empower individuals to gain acknowledgment or financial rewards for their creative creations or inventions using their intellect.

Related Book:

“Law Relating to Intellectual Property” by Sreenivasulu N S

Sreenivasulu’s book on Law relating to IP covers a broad range of topics and provides an examination of intellectual property law exploring topics such, as patents, copyright, designs, trademarks, trade secrets, GI’s, semiconductor chips and plant varieties. The author aims to guide readers through the complexities of intellectual property law, in regions including India, USA, UK.

Corporeal and Incorporeal Property:

Corporeal property is a property wherein the person has right over ownership of a tangible or material things, meaning, those things can be touched or seen, for e.g- cars, devices etc, whereas, Incorporeal property refers to ownership rights over property which cannot be seen or touched i.e. Intangible in nature. For e.g- IPR, easements etc.

Public and Private Property:

Public property is owned by the government and all the rights over it are available to the government. The government mainly uses it for public purposes, e.g. Parks, public hospitals etc. On the other hand, Private Property is a property whereby all the rights vested with the property are with a private individual other than government. The private property may be his own house, his garden, car etc.

Best Books to know about Property Law in India

“Property Laws” by Prof (Dr) AP Singh & Dr Ashish Kumar Srivastava”:

This book is an exceptional read for students, especially UG and PG students. It explores the development of aspects of property law by providing explanations of the important and intricate doctrines and principals involved. Additionally, it also covers the legal considerations associated with these concepts.

“Textbook on the Transfer of Property Act” by Dr Avtar Singh & Prof (Dr) Harpreet Kaur:

This book provides an analytical take of the TPA, 1882. It offers a thorough explanation of the concepts through illustrations and case laws. Towards the conclusion of each chapter, the book includes summaries, FAQs and practical exercises, with solutions. This comprehensive approach aims to provide an understanding of the subject matter and is ideal for law students and practitioners.

Conclusion

To conclude, the property laws in India plays a vital role in regulating and safeguarding the rights of individuals concerning to land and real estates. With the rapid evolution of time, these laws have evolved to curb the diverse needs of a rapidly transforming society. As India is progressing way faster than it ever did before, a dynamic and responsive framework will be pivotal in fostering sustainable development, social justice, and harmony within the dimension of property ownership and transactions.

FAQs

What is the basic law of property?

Ans: The Transfer of Property Act, 1882 (TPA) is the basic law of property.

Who is the legal owner of land in India?

Ans: The person who name is registered in the land records is the legal owner of such land.

Which law is related to property?

Ans: The TPA, Partition Act and Indian Succession Act.

How do you prove ownership of a property in India?

Ans: Sale Deeds, Khata Certificates, Land Registration etc.

Who is the owner of father’s property in indian law?

Ans: Daughters and Sons, both have the legal right over their father’s property.

Family Law in India: An In-Depth Discussion and Historical Perspective

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Family law, in India is a diverse field that governs the intricacies of relationships within families. It covers a range of issues, including marriage, divorce, child custody and inheritance. This comprehensive guide aims to explain the aspects of family law in India such as Hindu law, Muslim law, Christian law, Parsi law and the Special Marriage Act of 1954. Additionally, we will explore the development of family law in India and highlight its origins and significant milestones.

We will also navigate through the complexities surrounding divorce and financial support under Hindu family law, dissolution of marriage under family law, Christian family law practices and Parsi family laws and recommend some of the best books on family law in India that can help you gain more in-depth knowledge. Furthermore, we will examine topics like child custody and support, adoption and guardianship procedures while also discussing remedies available, for victims of domestic violence through protection orders.

Understanding Family Law in India

The Family law in India can also be referred to as matrimonial law, as it covers most of the aspects arising out of a matrimonial relationship. It is one of the broadest branches of civil laws dealing with various legal problems revolving around families in one way or another. It is the foundation of the legal framework dealing with family life in India, and which covers diverse range of issues and rules influencing life of citizens and their families all over the country.

What comes under family law?

Marriage, Divorce and Maintenance Under Family Law:

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: It serves as an indispensable foundation to the law of family in India, covering most facets of Hindu marriage. In line with this law, there exist details on how marriage ceremonies should be carried out, conditions for a legitimate union, as well as what spouses should do and not to. The act also deals with problems associated with issues of monogamy and polygamy within a Hindu marriage as well as voidable marriages.

The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 plays a role, in guiding the process of divorce. It outlines reasons for divorce such as adultery, cruelty, desertion, conversion, mental illness and more. Additionally, it addresses an aspect of providing support to the dependent spouse during and after divorce proceedings through Section 24.

Related Read: Divorce Under Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Hindu Succession Act, 1956:

Another significant law that governs inheritance rights among Hindus is the Hindu Succession Act of 1956. This legislation establishes guidelines for distributing property among legal heirs in cases where someone passes away without leaving behind a will. The Act also. Grants daughters their share in ancestral property—a crucial step towards promoting gender equality, within Hindu families.

Muslim Family Law:

Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937: Muslim family law, in India is based on the teachings of the Quran and Hadith. The primary legislation that governs matters related to law is the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937. This act covers a range of areas such as marriage, divorce, maintenance and inheritance. It outlines procedures for dissolving marriages through methods, like talaq, khula and mubarat.

Christian Family Law:

Indian Divorce Act, 1869: Christian family law, in India is mainly governed by the Indian Divorce Act of 1869. This legislation outlines the guidelines, for marriages and divorces. It establishes the reasons on which a Christian marriage can be terminated, such as adultery, cruelty and abandonment guaranteeing that Christian couples have a structure to pursue divorce when it becomes necessary.

Parsi Family Law:

Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936: The Parsi Community, in India follows the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936 to govern their family law. This act outlines the process to protect the cultural aspects of the Parsis including their traditions, for marriage and divorce.

Special Marriage Act, 1954:

Special Marriage Act, 1954 is a secular and all-inclusive legal structure in India which enables people belonging to different religions or those having no religion at all, to contract marriages under a civil provided law. Such an act provides an alternative to religious marriage laws of India, that is oriented towards inter-religious or inter-caste marriages.

TYPES OF FAMILY LAW IN INDIA

1. Hindu Law:

Hindu Law holds importance in the realm of family law, in India for individuals who follow Hinduism. It operates under the governance of acts and codes including the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 and the Hindu Succession Act of 1956. This body of law governs matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and maintenance, within the Hindu community. Within this framework, marriages are regarded as institutions that are accompanied by various rituals and ceremonies.

Recommended Book– The most reputable writing on the subject is Mulla Hindu Law. It has been cited in a number of decisions by the Supreme Court and High Courts. The first thing to point out about this publication will be that it consists of two parts. The first part of this commentary relates common Hindu law system. Part 2 contains section-wise commentary on four major enactments: The Hindu Marriage Act, The Minority and Guardianship Act, The Hindu Succession Act and the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act.

2. Muslim Law:

In India Muslim family law is based on various principles and is applicable, to individuals who follow the Muslim faith. The guidelines for marriage and divorce in law are derived from the teachings of the Quran and Hadith. The main legislation that governs laws for Muslims in India is the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act of 1937 which acknowledges forms of divorce such, as talaq and khula.

Recommended Book– Universal Concise Commentary’s Book on Muslim Laws –Comprehensive and Authoritative Guide to Muslim Law is written in simple and clear terms, is ideal for lawyer, practitioners and alike and is supported with several judicial precedents.

3. Christian Law:

Majority of Christians in India have to rely on Christian family law. It handles issues affecting marriage, divorce and succession in connection with Christians. In India, Christian divorce is governed by the Indian Divorce Act, 1869. In contrast with Hindu law, it is possible in Christian law to dissolve marriage on specific conditions such as adultery and cruelty as well as desertion.

Recommended Book– Dr. Kande Prasada Rao’s book: “Christian law in India” is a clear and comprehensive guide on the institution of Christian Family Law. It covers the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872, The Divorce Act, 1869, Divorce Act, Converts’ Marriage Dissolution Act, 1866 and others which shaped Christian Law in India.

4. Parsi Law:

The Parsi community in India follows its own version of family law known as Parsi law. The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936 addresses the concerns like inheritance, maintenance pertaining in the community in Parsi law.

5. Special Marriage Act:

The Special Marriage Act of 1954 is a law that provides the opportunity, for individuals of backgrounds and even those who do not adhere to any religion to enter into a civil marriage. This legislation facilitates unions between people from religions and castes while also establishing regulations, for the registration and termination of such marriages.

Recommended Book– Universal’s bare act on the Special Marriage Act covers all aspects and has proper footnoting and is up to date with recent amendments: as amended by The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 (34 of 2019) (w.e.f. 31-10-2019) and The Personal Laws (Amendment) Act, 2019 (6 of 2019).

Child Custody Under Hindu Family Law: Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956

Child custody is an aspect that is regulated under Hindu family law. The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 offers guidance, on matters related to child custody. The main focus is always on the wellbeing and best interests of the child. Section 6 of the Act outlines the rights and duties of parents in relation, to raising caring for and supporting their children. The parent who has been granted custody is responsible, for ensuring the child’s wellbeing providing for their needs in terms of a lifestyle, healthcare, emotional support, physical development and medical care.

Recommended Book– Prashant Chandra’s Book on “Laws Relating to Liberty, Child Custody and Detention” is an analytical journey through Indian laws. It stresses that it is all about liberating oneself; in this case, how you effectively gain liberation and relief of getting child’s custody. It also deals with such things as when someone has not been subjected to legal proceedings before being locked up and in instances where a person seeks legal release.

Domestic Violence and Protection Orders Under Family Law in India

Safeguarding individuals, from violence is an aspect of family law in India. The enactment of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act in 2005 aims to tackle and combat the problem of violence against women within family relationships. This legislation grants victims of abuse with recourse such, as restraining orders protection orders and other provisions to guarantee their safety and welfare. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 also is a key statute that provides a framework to protect women from physical, emotional and mental abuse.

Adoption and Guardianship in Family Law

In India, family law also deals with the matters of adoption and guardianship which ensure the wellbeing and rights of children in families. The purpose of these laws is to establish a stable environment for children whether through adoption processes or the appointment of legal guardians. One significant statute that governs the adoption of children among Hindus is the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956. This law outlines the procedures and conditions under which adoption can occur. Additionally, the Guardians and Wards Act, 1890 addresses the appointment of guardians, for minors who need protection and care.

CONCLUSION

Family law, in India is a diverse field that deals with a range of legal matters that are crucial to family life. It covers secular laws each tailored to meet the specific requirements and customs of different communities within the country. From marriage and divorce to child custody, inheritance, adoption and protection against violence family law plays a role in regulating and protecting familial relationships. As India continues to progress socially and legally family law evolves to meet needs while upholding traditional values. Legislative reforms, court interpretations and landmark cases have collectively shaped the landscape of family law in India by emphasizing principles, like gender equality and the best interests of children.

FAQs

What is the concept of family law?

Family law is a legal branch governing matters related to familial relationships, encompassing marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, and domestic issues

What are the family laws in India?

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Muslim personal law, Guardians and Wards Act and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 etc.

What is an example of family law?

A prime example of Family Law in India is the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.

What is Section 13 of Family Court Act?

Section 13 talks about Right to legal representation. “No party to a suit or proceeding before a Family Court shall be entitled, as of right, to be represented by a legal practitioner: Provided, if the Family Court considers it necessary in the interest of justice, it may seek the assistance of a legal expert as amicus curiae.”

What is the role of Family Court?

Family courts are established as an independent body with jurisdiction over different family suits like divorce proceedings; resolution of controversial issues concerning guardianship and maintenance of the children among others; matters concerned with domestic violence.

Who is Karta in family law?

Karta often refers to an elderly Hindu male who is responsible for maintaining a Hindu Undivided Family (HUF) affairs, properties and other multiple duties in Hindu family law.

Environmental Laws in India: Unveiling the Path to Sustainable Living

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India is a vast country of ancient wisdoms and twenty-first century dreams inhabited with over 1.3 billion individuals. The immense geographical expanse of this sub-continent ranges from the Himalayan hills to the beach side at the peninsula coastline, bearing a variety of natural inheritance that is as multifarious as is its cultural legacy.

Yet, alongside its undeniable beauty lies a pressing challenge: balancing ruthless growth and the conservation of its environmental bounties. This era of fast industrialisation, urbanisation has made it necessary for protecting and using India’s natural resources in sustainable way.

These developments, which have included enactment of environmental laws, constitutional directives as well as ‘community driven’ efforts, converge to form an integral basis upon which sustainability of the ecology is enshrined in tandem with social economic upliftment. This article will explore constitutional aspect for environmental protection and talk about environment laws in India and recommend best books on environment laws in India.

What are Environment Laws?

Environmental laws are those meant to safeguard the environment, for sustainable use of natural resources as well as humans’ health and wellbeing. Their coverage includes air and water quality, pollution control, managing hazardous waste, resource conservation and others. Environmental laws are necessary for a reason; that reason being that they make sure we have a clean and healthy environment, available for everyone. It is worth mentioning that they support environmental sustainability and preserve various types of resources necessary for the benefit of all people both in the present, and further into the future. These include local, state, federal, and global environmental statutes. Some examples of environmental laws include: The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, Environment Protection Act, Energy Conservation Act etc.

Historical Roots of Environmental Laws in India

The development of Environment laws, in India can be traced back to a history of environmental awareness influenced by both legal and cultural factors. Legal cases and significant events have played a role in shaping the nations approach to preserving the environment.

The Bishnoi Community and the Khejri Trees

In the century the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan demonstrated environmental ethics. They deeply valued the Khejri tree, which is known for its ability to withstand droughts. This led to an incident where Bishnoi villagers sacrificed their lives to protect these trees from being cut down for construction purposes. This selfless act helped establish a conservation in India.

The Silent Valley Movement

During the 1970s Keralas Silent Valley faced deforestation due to a proposed project by the government. Local communities united against it resulting in a court decision known as M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1986). The Supreme Court ruling emphasized safeguarding areas.

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy that occurred in 1984 stands as one of the disasters globally. It underscored the need, for industrial safety measures and environmental regulations. As a response India enacted two laws; The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 and The Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991. The calamity led to the loss of lives and a significant rise, in health problems highlighting the outcomes that occur when environmental standards are not properly enforced.

Environmental Law in India with Reference to Articles of The Constitution of India

Article 48

Article 48, in the Indian Constitution is a provision that emphasizes the responsibility of the state to safeguard and enhance the environment. This involves taking measures to preserve and improve cattle breeds while also prohibiting the slaughter of cows, calves and other animals.

Article 51 A(g)

Article 51A(g) outlines a duty for citizens of India to protect and enhance the environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and to show compassion towards living creatures.

Article 253

Under Article 253 Parliament is empowered to enact laws for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention within the whole or part of India’s territory. This includes legislation for protection.

Article 21

Article 21 guarantees the right to life as a right in India. The Supreme Court has interpreted this article as encompassing the right to a healthy environment.

Together these four articles establish a framework for environmental preservation in India. The state bears an obligation to safeguard the environment; citizens are tasked with protecting it and Parliament holds authority to create laws ensuring its protection. The right to a healthy environment is recognized as an entitlement, for all citizens.

The Supreme Court of India has played a role, in upholding the guarantee of a clean and healthy environment. Through judgments the Court has affirmed that it is the responsibility of the state to safeguard the environment and that this duty can be enforced through legal channels. Moreover, the Court has recognized that the right to life encompasses the right to live in a healthy and clean environment.

For instance, in the M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1986) case the Court ruled that individuals have a right to a healthy surrounding and clean environment as part of their right to life. Furthermore, it ordered the government to take measures for cleansing the Ganga River.

In another case Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996) the Court emphasized that it is incumbent upon the government to protect and preserve our environment as a duty. Additionally, it directed authorities to implement measures, for curbing air pollution in Delhi.

Some Important Environmental Laws in India

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974:

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is created to regulate and manage water pollution in India. It sets standards, for the quality of water in bodies of water. This act gives both the central and state pollution control boards the power to prevent and control water pollution. It also includes provisions, for penalties in case of non-compliance. Section 24 grants the government the authority to restrict areas from being used for discharging pollutants into water bodies and even prohibits their use if necessary.

Related Book– Universal’s bare Act contains all the necessary laws required to get an in depth understanding of the The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) with, The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1975, The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 (36 of 1977) Repealed by The Taxation Laws (Amendment) Act, 2017 (18 of 2017), The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978

The Environmental Protection Act of 1986:

The Act establishes a fundamental basis for environmental law in India. It outlines a comprehensive framework aimed at preserving the environment and tackling diverse environmental issues. This legislation grants the central government authority to enact measures for safeguarding and enhancing environmental quality. It encompasses areas such as evaluating environmental impact, managing hazardous substances, and enforcing penalties for non-compliance. Section 3 of the Act focuses on appointing authorities responsible for enforcing its provisions, including conducting environmental impact assessments and granting environmental clearances.

Related Book– Universal’s Bare Act on Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only covers a single act, but covers a diverse range of acts which are in consonance with the EPA.

They include-

The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 as amended by G.S.R. 5(E), 3rd January, 2019
The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:

The primary goal of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 is to address the challenges posed by air pollution in India. This legislation sets up a framework to regulate emissions, from industries and vehicles. It empowers state governments to identify areas that require air pollution control measures and enforce emission standards, for both industries and vehicles. Section 19 of this Act confers authority upon state governments to take actions in order to prevent and control air pollution, including designating regions as air pollution control zones.

Related Book– Universal’s bare Act on Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 along with Rules, 1982 is a comprehensive guide which contains all sections, schedules and is upto date with recent amendments.

The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

This act set up the National Green Tribunal, or NGT. This new court deals with legal cases about the environment in India. The NGT can hear cases about enforcing environmental laws and environment-based rights. Section 14 of the Act authorises the NGT to pass judgments to restore the environment, make violators pay damages, and punish them when they break environmental laws.

Related Book– Universal’s Bare Act on The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (19 of 2010) as amended by The Finance Act, 2017 (7 of 2017) (w.e.f. 26-5-2017) with covers: • The National Green Tribunal (Manner of Appointment of Judicial and Expert Members, Salaries, Allowances and other Terms and Conditions of Service of Chairperson and other Members and Procedure for Inquiry) Rules, 2010

The Wildlife Protection Act from 1972:

This Act is all about protecting wildlife in India. It puts different animals into different schedules, giving them different levels of protection. The Act deals with stuff like hunting, poaching, and ruining habitats and it sets up protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries too. Section 9 says you can’t hunt any animals that are in Schedules I II, III, or IV unless you get special permission first and meet certain conditions.

Overall, the motive is to protect and conserve wildlife in the country. It wants to stop people from illegally hunting animals or destroying forests where they live. The Act establishes parks and sanctuaries where wildlife can thrive without human interference. But it does allow some hunting in specific situations if you get approval as per the Schedules mentioned above. The main goal is preserving India’s wildlife while managing human interaction.

The Energy Conservation Act of 2001:

ECA is a law in India that focuses on using energy in a sustainable manner and conserving it. This legislation was enacted to address the nations increasing energy demands and the imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The ECA introduces measures to encourage energy conservation, such as establishing standards for energy appliances and equipment promoting energy audits and implementing energy management systems. The implementation of the ECA is overseen by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) a mandated organization formed under this act. The BEE holds responsibility, for setting efficiency standards promoting audits and management systems as educating the public about conserving energy.

Related Book– Universal’s Energy Conservation Act, 2001 along with allied Rules contains all the designated laws and allied rules to understand the Energy conservation regulation structure in the country.

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002:

One of the notable acts in India is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 which seeks preserve the country’s abundant biology and promote their long-lasting utilization. This Act has been passed pursuant to commitments of India made in accordance with the UN Convention on Biodiversity (CBD). According to the act; biological diversity is defined as the range or variability that exists within the living organisms obtained from all resources in the both terrestrial as well as marine and other aquatic ecosystems that form the natural habitats. This encompasses all kinds of variation such as intra-species, inter-species and between ecosystems. The Act’s objective: Conservation of biological diversity and Sustainable use of its components

Related Book– Universal’ Biological Diversity Act, 2002 along with Rules, 2004 captures along with the main act, the United Nations Conventions, Guidelines to access of Biological Resources, and multiple notifications ideal to get a good understanding.

Indian Forest Act 1927

One of the oldest and most important environmental laws in India is the Indian Forest Act of 1927. It came into being in order to control the utilization of forestry resources since these are significant determinants of the state’s environment and economy. The Act also establishes a number of mechanisms to protect forests, including:

An Inquiry into the Making Up of Forestry Departments.
The need for permits for activity such as removal of trees or carrying timber.
Prohibited Activities in Forests like Hunting and Fires.

Related Book– Universal’s bare act on Forest Act, 1927 covers The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and Rules, 2003 with The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 and is an ideal book to know about the section, amendments and notifications.

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006-

FRA is an essential law guaranteeing forest land and resources to forest-dwelling tribal communities as well as other traditional forest dwellers (OTFDs). Further, the Act establishes Gram Sabhas for supervising village-based forest management.

Related Book– Universal’s bare act The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 covers all bases and also contains the 2019 amendment related to Jammu and Kashmir reorganisation.

Conclusion

Sustainable utilization of India’s diverse natural resources is more than just an aspiration. At the heart of India’s future lie the contradictions of development and conservation, in which it can navigate towards a more balanced future.

We have looked at the country’s dedication to protecting its environment through a number of statutes such as environmental acts, constitutional provisions, and actual cases. India has shown flexibility and creativity when facing environmental problems, from the historic wisdom of the Bishnoi community to the modern wonders of environmentally sound agriculture in Sikkim.

The Rajasthan Canal Project shows how sustainable water management can turn things around. Solar power initiatives offer a direction towards the use of cleaner and renewable sources of energy. Meanwhile, as India is still dealing with the uncertainties brought about by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and climate change, its history together with current innovative solutions directs its path towards a more sustaining future.

FAQs

What is the new environment law in India?

The new Environment law in India is the Environment (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 and subsequent amendment rules, 2022.

What is rule of environmental law?

It is a principle that the environment is a public good, and that everyone has a right to a clean and healthy environment.

What is the origin of the environmental law?

The Bishnoi Community and the Khejri Trees, Silent Valley Movement, Bhopal Gas Tragedy etc.

What was the first environmental law in India?

The first major environment law in India was the Environment Protection Act, 1986

Why are environmental laws important in India?

Environment laws are important to safeguard the ecosystem, have clean and proper surroundings and to punish those who offend the environment and surroundings.

Insights into Civil Law and Criminal Law

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As a person having legal knowledge or a law student or anybody related to the legal field, we might know about every branch of the law system of our country. But if we take the view of a layman of our country then he/she only have the basic knowledge of the law. In law there are two types of law that everyone in the country is aware of i.e.

Civil law and Criminal Law. In simple words Civil and Criminal are two such laws that everyone is familiar with it. And these two laws cover the majority of our legal system as well. India being a populated country, has a wide range of segregations. Every other day, we find some or the other whether Civil or Criminal, crimes being committed in the country. Such kind of acts are increasing day by day and due to the increase in such acts, our country’s legal system needed

There is a lot of difference between civil law and criminal law but the purpose of these two laws are to maintain peace, safety and a protected system. In this blog, we have also provided recommendations for books on criminal law and civil law to further enhance your understanding of the topic.

Civil Law

Civil law is a branch of our legal system that deals with disputes between parties and also conflicts between the parties (private) such as individuals, organization and businesses. This Civil law is also known as non-criminal law or private law. Civil law also helps the citizens of the country in their personal life affairs like property matters, ownership, marriage, insurance claims, custody of the children and Copyrights. This legal section only deals with clearing out the problem or disputes that have arisen between the two or more individuals and the organisation as well. Civil law usually deals by providing the fine or compensation to the court or to the party.

Parties involved

In civil cases the plaintiff and the defendant are the primary parties. To represent the parties, an attorney is also needed, who will be representing their interests and along with them- witnesses, third parties and judges are important.

Plaintiff: the plaintiff is the individual or the organization that file a case or a civil lawsuit (petition) against the another party (defendant) in the appropriate court. The plaintiff claims that they have suffered harm, injury or violation of their rights due to the action of another party and they seek for a legal remedy from the court.
Defendant: the defendant is an individual or organization against whom the plaintiff have filled the lawsuit. The defendant is accused of causing injury, harm or violating the rights of the plaintiff. The defendant must have to give respond to the plaintiff’s allegation and defend their rights and position.
Attorneys: In any cases the attorneys roles are the most important character because they take the responsibility of their clients. In civil cases each party is represented by an attorney or a legal counsel, who supports their client’s interest and present their case before the honourable judge in court room.
Third Parties: sometimes in civil cases, the third party may become involved as witness. They can be either individuals or impleaded parties.
Witnesses: Witnesses are the individuals who plays the role of fact witnesses. They may have relevant the facts or information or evidence that related to the case.
Judge: The judge ensures that the legal procedures are followed in the case and he gives the judgement on the matter of law. The judge is responsible for maintaining the decorum of the courtroom, proceedings, objections and representation the decision on motion and finally the case outcome if it goes to the trial.

Features of Civil Law:

Civil law deals with disputes between the private individuals and organization.
Civil law protects the rights of the parties and solve the disputes in a timely and efficient manner, based on the principle of justice, fairness and the rule of law.
Cases are usually the verdicts by a judge or panel of judges.
Burden of proof is lower in civil cases as compare to criminal cases. In Civil law cases the remedies typically include monetary compensation rather than fines or imprisonment.

Criminal Law

Criminal law relates to crime and punishment and is referred to as penal law. This is a branch of the legal system that deals with criminal acts and also involves offences that are against the society. In criminal law the accused is given punishment if they do any kind of crime which is against the state or any evil nature of the crime that causes harm to the society. There must be sufficient awareness in the country about criminal law and civil law both. Criminal law mainly focuses on punishment rather than dispute as compare to civil law. In Criminal cases the accused faces a set of procedural laws like arrest, charging and trial of criminal defendants. These procedures are designed to protect the rights of defendants and it ensure that they receive a fair trial.

Related Read: New Criminal Laws in India

Parties involved

In Criminal Law there are Prosecution, defendant, witnesses, victims who plays the main character in the criminal case. While Judge ensure that the criminal process is fair and a proper legal process. All the parties work within the framework of law to ensure everything going according to the legal process and in a fair way.

The Prosecution: The Prosecution represents the state or the government basically the prosecution is led by the government attorney. The prosecution primary role is to bring charges against the defendant who is also known as accused, and present the evidence to prove accuser’s guilt.
The Defendant: The defendant is the individual against whom the committing crime has been accused. The defendant has the right to legal representation either through a private retained attorney or court appointed attorney (if the defendant cannot afford an attorney then court appointed someone as the defendant attorney). The defendant can plead in front of judge that he/she is guilty or not guilty to the charge brought against them.
The Judge: The judge supervises the whole criminal case and ensure that everything is going according to the law and the proceeding are conducted in fairly way. The judge makes rulings on legal issues. In some cases, the judge may determine the sentence if the accused or the defendant found guilty or pleads guilty.
Witnesses: witnesses are individuals who may have the information or evidences which is relevant to the case. Witnesses can be called by both the parties.
Victims: in some criminal cases, there may be a victim of the situation who has suffered in an incident and as a result of the alleged crime. The victim has the opportunity to provide impact statement during the court proceeding.

Features of Criminal Law:

In criminal cases it’s deals with offenses against the society as whole, rather than disputes between two parties.
Criminal law involves the burden of punishments and penalties upon those, who are found guilty of criminal offenses.
In compare to civil cases the burden of proof are higher in criminal cases.
In criminal cases the cases are initiated and conducted by the government attorney.
Remedies of criminal cases including Imprisonment, fines and both.

Related Books:

The Indian Penal Code, 1860

This premium edition book on The Indian Penal Code, 1860 by LexisNexis covers the Indian Penal Code, 1860; the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973; and the Indian Evidence Act. This pocket guide can be used by legal practitioners, courts officials, criminal investigators, policy officers or prospective police training graduates, lawyers, lecturers or any other person who may want to learn more about this subject matter. The broad principles for crime prevention and punishment are included in the Indian Penal Code 1860 and The Code of Criminal Procedure 1973.)

The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973

Sohoni’s Code of Criminal Procedure remains an undisputable legal classic, which could only have been written to serve the legal profession and all those. It’s the most exhaustive and authentic commentary on criminal procedure laws in India. As the first word on this subject, it has been meticulously supplemented with all latest cases, legislative amendments along with updates of the law of criminal procedure in India.

The Indian Evidence Act, 1872

This classic work on “The Indian Evidence Act, 1872” that was authored by Supreme Court Chief Justice M. Monir is as good as it’s ever been, lasting 81 years. First edition was published in 1936 for updates of law of evidence by cases, statute and development with seventeen editions. This current edition is however a thorough revision of the author’s work and hence retains authenticity of the original.

New Criminal Law Books:

The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023

The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) , 2023

The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA), 2023

Difference between Civil Law and Criminal Law

Parameters	Civil Law	Criminal Law
Meaning	relates to injuries suffered by individuals and for which compensation or financial remedy may be provided	Related with a crime that causes injury to a person which is an offence against the whole society. The person commiting crime is charged with Imprisonment.
Liability	Private liability- against person or organisation	Against the whole state
Punishment	Mostly, monetary	Imprisonment and/or Fine
Triable	Cases under Civil law are triable under Civil Court or equivalent tribunals.	Cases under Criminal law are tried under Criminal Court or Sessions Court.
Procedural Law	Code of Civil Procedure (“CPC”), 1908	Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973
Gravity of offences	Less grave than criminal	More severe than civil
Filing of the case	The party aggrieved files the case	The government files the case on behalf of the victim,
Registration	Can be directly filed in the court	Cases need to be registered in the police station directly and then subsequently in the court.
Infringement	Infringement of private rights	Infringement of public rights
Branches	Corporate law, Property law, Sports law etc.	No branches as such
Examples of Acts	Invasion of privacy, negligence, Trespass etc	Kidnapping, theft, rape, murder etc

Conclusion

Civil and Criminal both laws are the backbone of our Indian legal system. Civil law deals with disputes between two parties, such as property, contract disputes and personal injuries cases, while criminal deals only with crimes and give punishment to the person who committed any kind of crime according to the law. The burden of proof is less in the civil cases as compare to criminal cases.

If a person is involved in any kind of legal disputes, then it is important for that person to consult a good qualified lawyer to determine whether it is civil disputes or criminal. A lawyer can help you to do all the legal paper works and if needed then he is going to represent you in the court. So never hesitate to contact a lawyer if you have any quarry related to any legal work.

FAQs

What are 3 differences between civil and criminal cases?

Civil law deals with disputes of property, contract between two parties while criminal law deals only with crimes.
In civil law the case is filled by the private party while in criminal law the case is filed by Government or by the state.
In civil law both parties can apply but in criminal law only the defendant can apply.

What is the difference between crime and civil wrong?

The main difference between crime and civil wrong is, crime is an offence against the state or the government while civil wrong is against an individual or an organization.

What are the main features of the civil law?

Civil law deals with disputes between the private individuals and organization.
Civil law protects the rights of the parties and solve the disputes in a timely and efficient manner, based on the principle of justice, fairness and the rule of law.

What is the difference between criminal and civil contempt of court?

The difference between civil and criminal contempt of court is that, civil contempt is intended to do complying with the court order, while in criminal contempt is intended to punish the offender for their disrespect towards the court.

What are examples of cases that are both civil and criminal in India?

Domestic violence, fraud, medical malpractice, defamation these are the examples of the cases that are both civil and criminal in India.

Understanding the Consumer Protection Act: Safeguarding Consumer Rights

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Ever since the introduction of the Consumer Protection Act the phrase “Buyer be aware” seems to have transformed into “Seller be fair” This change has given consumers more power and assurance that their rights are fully protected when they make purchases and make transactions with sellers.

Enacted in 1986, the Consumer Protection Act was the foremost legislation that was brought in and implemented by the Central Government in India to safeguard and protect the rights of consumers.

According to section 2(7) of the Consumer Protection Act a consumer is an individual who purchases or sells goods or services for consideration- either paid or promised or partly paid or partly promised, for use other than for a commercial use or resale purpose. In this blog, we will be delving into a comprehensive explanation of the Consumer Protection Act. Additionally, we have recommended some books on Consumer Protection Act in this blog to help you enhance your understanding further.

Why is there a need for enacting a Consumer Protection Law?

The need of enacting the Consumer Protection Act was to protect consumers from unfair trade practices. India’s economy was growing and then commercialisation led to a boom in the market, wherein consumers were being ill-treated, misled and unfair trade practices saw a rise. Another need of the Consumer Protection Act was to empower consumers by giving them a legal backing to combat unfair trade practices, and misleading statements by the sellers.

What are various Consumer Rights?

Right to Safety:

Means having the legal right to be shielded from the products and services that endanger life and property. The products and services obtained should serve their long-term interests as well as their present requirements. Customers should demand both the product quality and the warranty of the goods and services before making a purchase. They should preferable buy high-quality and purity of the products should be maintained with labels like ISI or AGMARK or Hallmark.

Right to Choose:

Consumers have the right to choose and purchase a variety of goods, services, or both at reasonable costs because of the right to their choice. They cannot be coerced into purchasing a good or a service nor they can be forced to select a particular brand. Consumers can choose any brand that best suits their interests.

Right to Information:

Under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (“Act”), Indian Consumers have ‘Right to Know’ or “Right to be Informed” about the Products/services they want to buy with the help of ‘accurate and transparent’ information. Which the consumer has the right to; to informed choice; to be protected against unfair trade practices; and to hold trading entities to account for their behaviors.

Right to Consumer Education:

To prevent being taken advantage of, consumers should be aware about their rights. They may pay even more as a result of their ignorance. Consumers have the right to acquire the necessary knowledge and abilities required to become a lifelong informed consumer. The main cause of their exploitation is ignorance of the laws, the remedies, prevailing rates etc. especially among rural people.

Right to be Heard:

The consumer redressal system is what preserves the rights of customers to make their demands heard, share their perspectives, and demand satisfaction from injustice or dissatisfaction. The Right to be Heard enables customers to voice their opinions about the products/services used, they can express their concerns, lodge complaints and request appropriate remedial action if any grievance is faced.

Right to seek compensation:

It’s a crucial right which enables buyers to get their money back in case of getting bad products or bad quality services. The seller/manufacturer/service providers must indemnify the consumer for any injury, damages and financial loss caused due to their act or negligence.

Responsibilities of a Consumer

1. Awareness:

Consumers must realize that buying any product or service is an active decision that they take and this demands some due-diligence on their part in terms of knowing what level of safety assurance would be required from what you are purchasing. Customers’ primary duty when making purchases of durable goods is to maintain copies of the receipts or other proof of purchase. Consumers should also be aware of the legal rights and remedies in case they face some issues or legal concerns.

2. Exercising their rights responsibly:

Consumers must use their rights reasonably and responsibly and so as not to harm another. E.g., a consumer shall not launch a false/frivolous complaint against the seller.

3. Ensuring to see the quality and safety of products and services:

Consumers need to be mindful of the quality and safety of the products they buy. By not compromising on quality consumers can play a role, in addressing the issue of counterfeit and low quality products. When purchasing goods or services it is important for consumers to seek out quality certifications, like ISI and Agmark.

How can a Consumer file a Complaint?

The Department of Consumer Affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution has established the National Consumer Helpline portal named as “Integrated Grievance Redressal Mechanism- INGRAM” for consumers wanting to report their complaints.

Gather Documentation

To file a consumer complaint, the first necessary step is to accumulate all essential paperwork. This includes the following: Copy of proof of purchase (the bill), communication between the buyer and seller or service providers — whether email, letter, or additional documentation you have in support of your case, such as photographs, videos, or anything else.

Reach Out to the Seller/ Service Provider for Problem Resolution.

It’s often worth giving the store owner/service provider a chance to fix things informally before making a formal complaint. You can do this by calling, sending an email or in-person communication. Be concise with your message and inform them what is wrong. If the seller or service provider is not willing and/or able to fix your problem; go on to the following step.

Approach Consumer Helpline

In case of any grievance against the seller or service provider, you may not be able to address the same with them and you may need to approach the Consumer Helpline for redressal. They will also guide you as to how to lodge a complaint in the right consumer court.

Lodge a complaint at the required consumer forum.

There are three tiers of consumer forums in India: District, State and The National Consumer Commission. For claims less than equal to 1 crore, you have to go the District Consumer Forum. If your claim being of Rs.1 crore and upto 10 crore, then you have to file a complaint with the State Consumer Forum. In case of claims above INR 10 crores please approach National Consumer Commission to lodge a complaint.

After filing your complaint, the consumer court shall fix the hearing date to settle consumer disputes. In the hearing you are given a chance to tell your side of the story. The court also gives the service provider/seller an opportunity to respond to it. Once the consumer forum has heard from both parties, they will decide on what the decision is. In case consumer forum rules in your favour, you can obtain compensation/ refund, or a replacement product/ service.

Features of Consumer Protection Act

Legal Framework

This act was enacted under Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (CPA), which is an exhaustive legislation designed to safeguard consumer’s rights within India. It was established with the purpose of providing affordable and speedy justice to consumer complaints. The Act is applicable on any Goods or Services, subject to exemptions specified by the Central Authority.

Consumer Forums

The CPA introduces the three tier-consumer refund framework comprising District Buyer Courts of law, State Buyer Complaints and the Public Shopper Gripe body. If any consumer faces an injustice during buying things or service, then he has the right to fill up his complains into these forums directly.

Consumer Complaints

Individual consumers, as well as consumer organisations, can address complaints towards specific businesses/services. This complaint has to be in writing and nowadays, INGRAM portal is there and you must include all pertinent facts; the name and address of complaining party, the name and address of the seller or service provider, the date of purchase, what the problem is about, and the relief.

Jurisdiction and Remedies

The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 has introduced three-tier consumer grievance redress mechanism, which consists District Consumer Forum, State Consumer Commission& National Consumer Commission. If consumers feel aggrieved by the sale or provision of goods and service, they can make complaint with these forums.

Penalties

On violation of S. 90 (1) and S. 90 (2) of the Consumer Protection Act, there is an attribution of penalty for producing, possessing, offering for sale adulterated or spurious goods.

If it’s found that the products are adulterated and there’s no harm caused, you may get up to a fine of Rs. 1lakh or even six months of imprisonment for that matter.

For any harm caused but not resulting in injury there is also a fine of up to Rs. 20 lakhs. In case someone inflicts harm they may face a summons with penalties as 5 lakhs and, up to seven years’ imprisonment. If someone fails to comply with the National, State or District CDRC they could face one month in prison and a possible extension of, up to three years. According to section 89 any manufacturer or service provider who publishes a misleading advertisement can be fined up to ten lakh rupees or 2 years in jail. A court can only take action, against offenses under sections 88 and 89 if a complaint under the CCPA or an authorized official designated by them.

Recommended Books to Deepen Your Understanding of the Consumer Protection Act

1. “Consumer Protection Act, 1986“ by Universal’s Concise Commentary:

This book on “Consumer Protection Act, 1986“ by Universal’s Concise Commentary is a comprehensive and well written guide to the consumer protection law in India, with analytical case law readings. It is a valuable resource for students, lawyers and professionals who want to understand and know more about their consumer rights.

2. “Commentary on the Consumer Protection Act” by Dr J N Barowalia:

This “Commentary on the Consumer Protection Act” by Dr J N Barowalia provides an insightful analysis of the new Consumer Protection Act, 2019, which repealed the Consumer Protection Act, 1986 along with incorporating notable decisions of the Supreme Court and High Courts. The commentary also sets out the structure of the legislation and covers the fora of regulation of disputes and the formalities necessary for invoking the jurisdiction of the tribunals.

3. “Key to Consumer Protection Law Practice & Procedure” by Narender Kumar:

The author was the Addl. District & Sessions Judge, Delhi. This practical handbook “Key to Consumer Protection Law Practice & Procedure” by Narender Kumar covers the necessities, procedures and protocols involved in resolving disputes, between suppliers and customers through consumer forums. These forums operate under the framework established by the Consumer Protection Act (CPA). It also includes detailed discussion of CPA, 2019 along with FSSAI Act, 2006 and Legal Metrology Act, 2009.

4. “The Law of Consumer Protection” by Shyam Padman:

Authored by the renowned author Shyam Padman, this book “The Law of Consumer Protection” is an informative guide with a focus on procedural aspects of the Act and case laws. It also has references of the Consumer Protection Bill of 2015 to let readers know about the proposed legislation after the 1986 Act.

CONCLUSION

The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 is a major legislative milestone enabling an otherwise inert consumer to stand up against unfair trade practices and substandard products or services. It also provides consumer redressal at three tiers which is very helpful in solving problems of the customers. With knowledge, alertness and change we move towards a better society. Because, for that to exist, you need agreement on both sides of the market between the producers and the consumers, and that’s going to take goodwill all the way around. The Consumer Protection Act is specifically focused on safeguarding the rights and interests of consumers to ensure they receive treatment.

FAQs

1. What are the Consumer Protection act of 1986 and its features?

The act encompasses a range of goods and services spread across all consumer sectors. It also defines who is a consumer. The Consumer Dispute Redressal Commission oversees a three mechanism, for resolving consumer disputes. It also mentions the penalties and the remedies available.

2. Why is consumer protection important?

Consumer laws are essential in order for seller’s service providers are regulated, so that consumer’s interest may be protected against bad or unethical trade practices.

3. What is consumer protection under Indian laws?

India consumer protection refers to a bundle of legislation and laws that are meant to safeguard the interests of consumers. They apply in a number of areas such as safety, information, consumer choice, and redress.

4. Who is the father of the Consumer Protection Act?

The father of the Consumer Protection Act is Ralph Nader.

5. What is the latest Consumer Protection Act?

The recent enactment, for consumer protection is the 2019 Consumer Protection Act. This law includes provisions that aim to safeguard the rights and interests of consumers engaged in e- commerce. It introduces the concept of product liability.

6. What is the history of the Consumer Protection Act?

In its present form, the civil justice system is so full of flaws. However, due to its cost effectiveness and backing of the government, the Consumer Protection Act of 1986 was introduced – for easy access to justice, resulting in a legal revolution within India. It has been amended three times: the first time, in 1991, second time in 2002, third time, most recently, in 2019.